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THE ART OF ILLUMINATING,

PART I.

WHAT THE ART OF HLUMINATING WAS.

CURSORY inspection of this volume will at once suffice
to convince the student, that the principal aim of all who
have concurred in its production has been to render it as
practically useful as possible, to those who may desire to
see illumination revived as one of the most graceful
Decorative Arts of the present day. Any such revival
would be but barren, which contemplated the displacement
of the printer to make way for the scribe ; and sad indeed
would be the sacrifice of human life and energy involved
in any such unsatisfactory competition. It is by extending the scope of the
Art alone, that it can be accommodated to the exigencies of the present
moment ; and it is to an attempt to place that extension upon a proper and
useful basis — one alike precluding contempt for the labours of the past, and
fostering the independent inventive spirit of the present, — that this memoir, and
this selection of examples for study and imitation, are devoted. In the present
part, however, my remarks will be restricted to the primitive, and, wi^^^"" rare
exceptions, the only important, application of the Art in past ages^ .z. its
application to the decoration of manuscripts. '

It is necessary only to glance at the ponderous folios of those pioneers in
palaeographical research, the Benedictines, or at the noble and costly volumes of
the Count Bastard, Sylvestre and ChampoUion, Owen Jones anc^i^oel Humphreys,
to recognize the futility of attempting in such a work as this to do justice to the
antiquarian interest of this subject, or to give any series of examples sufficient to
convey an adequate idea of the magnificence and peculiarities of the rich store of
monuments of art, treasured in the great public and private libraries of Europe.
Men of the profoundest learning have devoted, some Avhole lives, and many of them
long years, to the study of those precious pages, on the decoration of A<'hich the

25S305

2 THE ART OF ILLUMINATING.

highest efforts of the illuminists of old were lavished ; and have yet, one and all,
confessed the partial and incomplete mastery of the subject which they, with all
their labour, have heen enabled to acquire, or in elaborate disquisitions to record
for the benefit of posterity.

With works pis^iuced with such preparations, such energy, such devotion, it
would be presumiDtROus to suppose that this little essay could for one moment
compete ; it can but aim at the humble merit of endeavouring, firstly, to draw the
attention of the unlearned to the interest and practical value of the Art it illustrates;
and, secondly, to direct the student to those sources of information from a careful
study of which alone any proper knowledge of the archaeology of the subject can
be acquired.

The reader being thus forewarned of the elementary nature of the information
he is likely to derive from a perusal of the following notes, I at once proceed to
take up the first section of my theme.

The books of the ancients were scarcely books in the modern acceptation of
the term. From Egypt, where a rude form of illumination had been practised from
the most remote period, they obtained leaves of the papyrus, converted into a kind
of paper by gluing them together in two thicknesses, — ^generally with the muddy
water of the Nile, — the fibres in the upper leaf being placed so as to cross those of
the lower at right angles. Pliny^ describes the manufacture, and how the sheets,
limited in size by the dimensions of the papyrus-leaf, were cemented end to end,
until nearly twenty having been so connected, they were fit to form the scapus, or
roll, which constituted the usual Grecian and Roman books. Eumenes, king of
Pergamus, being unable to procure the Egyptian papyrus, through the jealousy of
one of the Ptolemys, who occupied himself in forming a rival library to the one
which subsequently became so celebrated at Pergamus, introduced the use of
parchment properly '' dressed " for taking ink and pigments ; and hence the
derivation of the word " pergamena " as applied to parchment or vellum ; the
former substance being the prepared skin of sheep, and the latter of calves.''

The sheets of parchment were joined end to end, as the sheets of papyrus
had been, and when written upon, on one side only, and in narrow transverse
columns across the breadth of the scroll, were rolled up round staves and bound
with strings known as " umbilici, " to which bosses of metal, or " bullae, " were
attached.'*

The custom of dividing books into pages is said by Suetonius to have been
introduced by Julius Gaesar, whose letters to the Senate were so made up, and after

^ Lib. xiii. cap. II.

^ M. Gabriel Peignot, in his " Essai sur I'Histoire du Parcliemin et du Velin," Paris, i8i2,
and in his paper on the same subject in "Le Moyen Age et la Renaissance," vol. ii. Paris, 1849,
produces evidence of the use of parchment for writing upon anterior to the age of Eumenes ; and
consequently limits his interpretation of Pliny's words, "Varro membranas Pergami tradidit
repertas," to an assertion of the discoveiy of improved processes by which parchment was rendered
more available for writing upon than it had been previous to the accession of Eumenes.

^ The appearance of these rolls when closed, and the manner of holding them to read from,
are very (jjearly shown in a painting in the " house of the surgeon " at Pompeii, where a man is
represented evidently engaged in deep study.

THE ART OF ILLUMINATING. 3

whose time the practice became usual for all documents either addressed to, or
issuing from, that body, or the emperors. As that form subsequently crept into
general use, the books were known as " codices ;" and hence the ordinary term as
applied to manuscript volumes. All classes of books, the reeds for writing in them,
the inkstands, and the " capsae " or " scrinia," the boxes in which the " scapi " or
rolls were kept, are minutely portrayed in ancient wall painting^and ivory diptychs.
The inkstands are generally shown as double, no doubt for containing both black
and red ink, with the latter of which certain portions of the text were written.-^

Nearly two thousand actual rolls were discovered at Herculaneum, of course in
a highly-carbonized condition, and of them some hundreds have been unrolled.
None of them appear to have been embeUished with illumination,'* so that for
proof of the practice of the art in classical times, we are thrown back upon
the classical authors themselves. The allusions in their writings to the employ-
ment of red and black ink are frequent. Martial, in his first epistle, points out
the bookseller's shop opposite the JuHan Forum, in which his works may be
obtained "smoothed with pumice-stone and decorated with purple." Seneca
mentions books ornamented " cum imaginibus." Varro is related by PHny to
have illustrated his works by likenesses of more than seven hundred illustrious
persons. Pliny, again, informs us that writers on medicine gave representations
in their treatises of the plants which they described. Martial dwells on the
editions of Virgil, with his portrait as a frontispiece. The earliest recorded
instance of the richer adornments of golden lettering on purple or rose-stained
vellum, is given by Julius Capitolinus in his life of the Emperor Maximinus the
younger. He therein mentions that the mother of the emperor presented to him,
on his return to his tutor (early in the 3rd century), a copy of the works of
Homer, written in gold upon purple vellum. Whether derived from Egypt or the
East, this luxurious mode of embellishment appears to have been popular among
the later Greeks, a class of whose scribes were denominated " writers in gold."
From Greece it was, no doubt, transplanted to Rome, where, from about the 2nd
century, it, at first slowly, and ultimately rapidly, acquired popularity. St. Jerome,
ingleed, writing in the 4th century, in a well-known passage in his preface to the
Book of Job, exclaims : " Habeant qui volunt veteres libros vel in membranis
purpureis auro argentoque descriptos vel uncialibus, ut vulgo aiunt. Uteris, onera
magis exarata quam codices j dummodo mihi meisque permittant pauperes
habere scedulas, et non tam pulchros codices quam emendatos."

This almost pathetic appeal of the great commentator was scarcely necessary
to assure us that such sumptuous volumes were executed for the rich alone,
since the value of the gold and vellum, irrespective of the labour employed,
must necessarily have taken them, as he indicates, altogether out of the reach of
the poor. Evidence indeed is not wanting, that many of the Fathers of the
Church laboured with their own hands to supply themselves with writings, which

' A good representation of a scrinium and scapi, from a painting in the '* Casa Falkene^"
described in the ** Museum of Classical Antiquities," vol. ii. p. 54, is given in one of the cubicula
of the Pompeian Court at Sydenham.

* See Gell's ** Pompeiana," Appendix ; and the '* Memoir of the Canonlco lorio."

B 2

4 • THE ART OF ILLUMINATING.

no golden letters or purpled vellums could make more valuable to them or their
primitive followers : thus, Pamphilus, the martyr, who suffered in the year 309,
possessed, in his own handwriting, twenty-five stitched books, containing the works
of Origen. St. Ambrose, St. Fulgentius, and others, themselves transcribed many
volumes, precious to themselves and most edifying to the faithful. Whatever
ornaments or pictures these volumes contained, no doubt reproduced the style
of art fostered, if not engendered, in the Catacombs.

Roman illuminated manuscripts would appear, therefore, to have been mainly
divisible into two classes ; firstly, those in which the text, simply, but elegantly
written in perfectly-formed, or rustic (that is, inclined) capitals, mainly in black
and sparingly in red ink, was illustrated by pictures, usually square, inserted in
simple frames^ generally of a red border only ; and secondly, the richer kind, in
which at first gold letters, on white and stained vellum grounds, and subsequently
black and coloured letters and ornaments on gold grounds, were introduced. The
first of these appears to have been the most ancient style, and to have long
remained popular in the Western Empire, while the second, which, as Sir
Frederick Madden has observed, no doubt came originally to the Romans
from the Greeks, acquired its greatest perfection under the early emperors of
the East.

Of both styles there are still extant some invaluable specimens, which, although
not of the finest periods of art, may still be regarded as typical of masterpieces
which may have* existed, and which fire or flood, Goth or Vandal, may have
destroyed. Before proceeding, however, to an enumeration of any of these, it
may be well to define certain terms which must be employed to designate the
peculiarities of character in which the difierent texts were written, some slight
knowledge of which is of great assistance in arriving at an approximate knowledge
of the dates at which they may have been executed. Such a definition cannot be
more succinctly given than in the following passage, extracted from Mr. Noel
Humphreys' interesting work " On the Origin and Progress of the Art of
Writing:"^ —

"Nearly all the principal methods of ancient writing may be divided into
square capitals, rounded capitals, and cursive letters ; the square capitals being
termed simply capitals, the rounded capitals niicia/s, and the small letters, or such
as had changed their form during the creation of a running hand, minuscule.
Capitals are, stricdy speaking, such letters as retain the earliest settled form of an
alphabet ; being generally of such angular shapes as could conveniently be carved
on wood or stone, or engraved in metal, to be stamped on coins. The eariiest
Latin MSS. known are written entirely in capitals, like inscriptions in metal
or marble.

" The uncial letters, as they are termed, appear to have arisen as writing on
papyrus or vellum became common, when many of the straight lines of the
capitals, in that kind of writing, gradually acquired a curved form, to facilitate
their more rapid execution. However this may be, from the 6th to the 8th, or
even loth century, these uncials or partly- rounded capitals T:>revail.
' P. 113. Ingram, Cooke, & Co. London, 1853.

THE ART OF ILLUMINATING. 5

" The modern minuscule, differing from the ancient cursive character, appears
to have arisen in the following manner. During the 6th and 7 th centuries, a kind
of transition style prevailed in Italy and some other parts of P2urope, the letters
composing which have been termed semi-uncials^ which, in a further transition,
became more like those of the old Roman cursive. This manner, when
definitively formed, became what is now termed the minuscule manner ; it
began to prevail over uncials in a certain class of MSS. about the 8th century,
and towards the loth its general use was, with few exceptions, established. It is
said to have been occasionally used as early as the 5 th century ; but I am unable
to cite an authentic existing monument. The Psalter of Alfred the Great, written
in the 9th century, is in a small Roman cursive hand, which has induced Casley to
consider it the work of some Italian ecclesiastic."

To return from this digression on the character of ancient handwriting, to the
examples still extant of the two great sections into which the manuscripts of
classical ages may be divided, I would observe, that, first in importance and
interest of the first class may certainly be reckoned the Vatican square Virgil
with miniatures, which has been referred by many of the best palaeographers to the
3rd century. It is written throughout in majuscule Roman capitals, which,
although MM. ChampoUion and Sylvestre^ describe them as of an "elegant but
careless form," appeared to me. when I examined the volume minutely in 1846,^ to
exhibit great care and regularity. The miniatures, many engravings from drawings
traced from which are given in D'Agincourt's " Histoire de I'Art par les
Monuments,"^ are altogether classical, both in design and in the technical
handling of the colours, which are applied with a free brush, and apparently in
the true antique manner, i.e. with scarcely any previous or finishing outline.
These miniatures have also been engraved by Pietro Santo Bartoli, but not with
his usual accuracy of style. A complete set of coloured tracings made by him are
in the British Museum (Lansdovvne Coll.), but they even are not quite satisfactory.
The Terence of the Vatican, which is without miniatures, is in a somewhat similar
writing, and belongs to about the same period. The third in importance of the
ancient Vatican manuscripts of this class, is in the rustic instead of elegant capital
lettering, and is supposed to be_ of the 5th century ; certainly not later. It is a
Virgil, decorated throughout with pictures executed in apparent imitation of the
square Virgil, but in a much more barbarous and lifeless style.'' From an entry
of the 13th century contained in the volume,^ and from our knowledge of its
having been long and at a remote period, preserved in France, it would
appear to have belonged to the Parisian monastery of St. Denis, if not to
the saint himself.

' '* Universal Palaeography." London, Bohn.

2 Through the kindness of the late Mr, Dennistoun, of Dennistoun, and Cardinal Acton, who
obtained the requisite facilities for me.
^ Tome V. pi. Ixv, ; tome iii. p. 29.

* D'Agincourt's famous mistake in attributing these miniatures to the 12th or 13th century,
and Ottlcy's ascription of those in the Saxon " Aratus " of the 9th century to the 2nd or 3rd, are
among those slips of the learned which prove that even great men are fallible.

* *' Iste liber est beati Dionysii."

6 THE ART OF ILLUMINATING,

So far as antiquity, irrespective of merit in point of illumination is concerned,
the most remarkable ancient Roman manuscript^ existing belongs to the curious
class known as " PaUmpsests," or books from which the colouring matter of an
original writing has been discharged, in order to prepare the vellum for receiving
an altogether different text, the latter being generally written at right angles to the
former.^ This precious document is the celebrated treatise " de Republica," by
Cicero, written in uncial characters, evidently in an Augustan period, and was
discovered by Cardinal Angelo Mai, under a copy of St. Augustine's Commentary
on the Psalms, made previous to the loth century.

The Ambrosian Library at Milan contains a codex of Homer, of equal
antiquity with the Cicero, with fifty-eight pictures, much in the style of the Vatican
square Virgil. This important MS. has been commented upon by the same
distinguished antiquary.^

The Vienna Roman calendar, supposed to have been executed in the 4th
century, and embellished with eight allegorical figures of the months, is both an
early and very important specimen of Roman illumination, not only on account of
the elegance and dexterous execution of these figures, but because it is the most
ancient manuscript in which anything like ornament^ independent of pictured
illustration of the author's text, is introduced. Of little less note in the history of art,
is the celebrated Dioscorides of the same imperial library, the date of which is
fixed by the fact of its being enriched with a very graceful portrait of the Empress
Juliana Anicia, for whom it is known to have been written at the commencement
of the 6th century. Both Lambecius* and D'Agincourt give various facsimiles
(omitting colour) of the fine illustrations which decorate this remarkable volume.

Another 5 th century Virgil of remarkable purity in the text, although without
miniatures, is the well-known " Medicean " of the Laurentian Library at Florence.
The Paris Prudentius, in elegant rustic capitals of the 6th century, is another fine
codex of the same type. There are, in addition to those already cited, various
other early texts of the classics contained in the different public libraries of Europe ;
and it is singular to remark, that (so far as I have been able to ascertain) none of
them are embellished with those richer decorations, which appear to have been
reserved after the end of the 5th century, for the great text-books of the Christian,
and more particularly of the Eastern Church. Of these sacred volumes, that which
is generally supposed to be the oldest complete version of the Bible in Greek,^ is the
Codex Alexandrinus of the British Museum, attributed, by consent of all the best
palaeographers, to the commencement of the 5 th century. It is without gold
altogether, and has no other illumination than the occasional contrast of red and

' The palimpsest Homer of the British Museum, discovered by Mr. Cureton, is of equal
importance in Grecian palaeography.

* In the case of the " de Republica, " they are written in the same direction. See facsimiles
in Sylvestre and Ferdinand Sere.

^ "Iliadis Fragmenta-antiquissima cum Picturis," ed. Angelo Maio.
"* Petri Lambecii "Commentaria de BibUotheca Vindobonensi," vol. ii.

* The Bible formerly belonging to Theodore Beza; now at Cambridge, and one in the Vatican,
are rival claimants to this honour,

THE ART OF ILLUMINATING. 7

black inks, and a line slightly flourished, at the close of each book.^ The next
fragment of the Scriptures, in point of probable date, is the once celebrated
Cottonian Genesis, or at least its ghost, for unfortunately a few charred and
shrunken fragments are all that have been saved from the disastrous fire which
destroyed so many of Sir Robert Cotton's precious volumes in 1731. In its
original state, as we know from several collations made previous to the fire, it
contained, on 165 pages, no less than 250 miniatures, each about four inches square.
Astle^ has given a facsimile of a page which, on comparison with the existing
shrivelled fragments, proves that in their present state they are just about one half
their original size. The paintings are in all respects antique, and correspond m
general character with cotemporary secular miniatures. Dr. Waagen'^ remarks that
" only the hatched gold upon the borders, the glories, and the Hghts on the crimsor
mantle indicate the commencement of Byzantine art." The great rival to the
*' Codex Cottonianus Geneseos " is the " Codex Vindobonensis Geneseos," which
consists of twenty-six leaves with eighty-eight miniatures. It forms one of the
four great lions of the Vienna Imperial Library. These two remarkable versions of
Genesis are supposed to be of nearly equal date, and correspond as to the character
of the truly antique miniatures very fairly ; the fact, however, of the text of the
English version being in black ink with very regularly formed letters, while that of
the Vienna one is, for the most part, written in gold and silver, and in less evenly-
distributed characters, induces a fair presumption in favour of the greater antiquity
of the Cottonian fragments. In the more gorgeous details of the Vienna Genesis,
coupled with its square and unadorned classic pictures, we may thus clearly
recognize the transition from our first or Latin class of ancient illumination, to our
second or purely Byzantine style. We especially designate this class as " Byzantine,"
because as art in illumination, as in all other branches, declined in the seven-hilled
city, it rose in the seat of empire founded in the East by the first great Christian
emperor. It is true that ideal art degenerated almost contemporaneously in the
capitals of both empires ; but in decorative art, at least, there can be no question
but that Byzantium gained, as Rome lost, ground. The former no doubt drew
fresh inspiration from her close intercourse with the Persian and other nations of
the East, while the latter was content to produce little, and that little in slavish
reminiscence of the past. Italy no doubt fed the earliest monastic libraries of
Western Europe with the quantities of texts of ancient authors we know them to
have contained ; but we may fairly assume those texts to have been but rarely
illustrated, since the original styles of illumination produced in those countries to
which the classic volumes travelled, would unquestionably have betrayed an antique
influence more strongly than they did, had the means of deriving that influence
been brought copiously within their reach.

I proceed now to a slight notice of the second class of ancient codices, that
on which the ultimate splendour of the Byzantine school was founded. Fortunately,
time has spared to our days several brilliant specimens of the richest of these

' It was given to Charles I. of England, by Cyrilliis Lucaris, Patriarch of Constantinople.

' In his "Origin and Progress of Writing."

' '*Trea$ures of Art in Great Britain," vol. i. p. 97.

8 THE ART OF ILLUMINATING.

quasi-classic manuscripts. Of such, the principal are, as Sir Frederick Madden
observes,^ " the celebrated Codex Argenteus of Ulphilas, written in silver and gold
letters on a purple ground, about a.d. 360, which is, perhaps, the most ancient
existing specimen of this magnificent mode of caligraphy ; after it, may be instanced
the copy of Genesis at Vienna," already mentioned, " the Psalter of St. Germain
des Pres, and the fragment of the New Testament in the Cottonian Library, Titus
C. XV., all executed in the 5th and 6th centuries."

The first-named of these contains, on about 1 60 leaves, a considerable portion
of the four gospels, and is now preserved in the Royal Library of Upsal, in Sweden.
It is the earliest version of any part of the sacred writings in the Moesogothic or
ancient Wallachian dialect.^ The second of Sir Frederick Madden's notabilities
has been alluded to as of transition character. The third, the Psalter of St.
Germain des Pres, is ascribed by M. Champollion Figeac, who has given a portion
of it in coloured facsimile in the " Moyen Age et la Renaissance "^ to the 6th
century. It is unquestionably a beautiful specimen of gold writing on purple, but
neither in the size of the letters nor in the ample spacing of the lines, will it bear
comparison with the, no doubt, earlier example, the Cottonian, Titus C. xv. Our
greatest authority upon all matters connected with early illuminated versions of the
Holy Scriptures, Mr. Westwood, remarks, in speaking of this last-named manuscript,
that " Codices purpureo-argentei are much rarer than those in golden writing, the
latter material being used not only on purple, but also on white vellum ; whereas the
silver letters would not easily be legible except on a dark ground. The writing is
in very large and massive Greek uncials ; the words denoting God, Father, Jesus,
Lord, Son, and Saviour, being, for dignity's sake, written in golden letters. The
colour of the stain has faded into a dingy reddish purple, and the silver is
greatly tarnished and turned black. This fragment is stated by Home to be one
of the oldest (if not the most ancient) manuscripts of any part of the New
Testament that is extant, and is generally acknowledged to have been executed at
the end of the 4th, or, at the latest, at the beginning of the 5 th century; although
Dr. Scholz refers it to the 7 th or 8th. Casley, however, whose knowledge of the
age of manuscripts has never been surpassed, considered that it is as old, or older
than the Codex Cottonianus Geneseos ; and Mr. Baber is inclined to give it
chronological precedency to any previously-named MSS. Dr. Dibdin'* states, that
the writing is executed in the largest Greek capitals which he had ever seen ; the
Bodleian Library, however, possesses a noble manuscript, written in still larger but
narrower characters. The Vatican codices 351 and 1522, of which specimens are
given by Blanchini, are also written in larger letters ; but these are much more
recent than the Cottonian MS."

The Vienna gold, silver, and purple Gospels, the lettering of which corresponds
closely with that last described, may be regarded as certainly next in importance,
and are of about equal antiquity. In none of these relics of magnificence are

' Text to *' Shaw's Illuminated Ornaments," page 4.

^ For a full description, with references to numerous commentators, see Westwood's
" Paloeographia Sacra Pictoria," cap. 49.

^ Tome ii. article " Manuscrits," fig. 15. < "Bib. Decam." i. p. 68.

THE ART OF ILLUMINATING. 9

we enabled to trace the Eastern or Persian influence, which unquestionably
imported a previously unknown originality and character into the art of Byzantium
during the reign of Justinian the Great, a.d. 527 to 565. It is, no doubt, true, as
Dr. Waagen remarks,^ that " the style of painting up to his time, both in concep-
tion, form, and colour, was much the same as that which has been preserved to us
in the paintings at Pompeii ; Avhile the spirit of Christianity, operating upon the
artistic Greek nature, stimulated it anew to beautiful and original inventions. In a
few single instances this style of Art was maintained until the loth century; but,
generally speaking, a gradual degeneracy ensued, which may be dated from
Justinian's period. The proportions of the figures gradually became exaggerated,
elongated, the forms contracted with excessive meagreness, the motives of the
draj^ery grew paltry, appearing either in narrow parallel folds stiffly drawn together,
or so overladen with barbaric pearls and jewels as to exclude all indication of form.
The flesh assumed a dark tone, the other colours became heavy, gaudy, and hard,
while in glories, hatchings, and grounds, gold was called into requisition. In these
qualities, united to a gloomy and ascetic character of heads, consist the elements of
the Byzantine school." But, on the other hand, it is ever to be remembered that
the mortification of the old flesh was but a symptom of the more active life beneath
it, sloughing off" the Pagan tradition, and gradually replacing it by that new and
healthy Christian vigour which, for many centuries, nourished and aided the
northern and western nations of Europe in their efforts to organize those national
styles of Christian Art which are commonly designated as Gothic.^

To return to Justinian, and his direct influence on the change of style which
took place during his reign, it may be noted as a curious fact, that the year in which
the great Church of Sta. Sophia was commenced was the very year in which he
concluded an eternal peace with Chosroes Nushirvan, king of Persia. In one or
two reigns antecedent to his, Greek artists had been employed in Persia, and there
had been a friendly communication between the two countries. It may be there-
fore assumed, that when Justinian proposed to build this structure in so short a
time, he not only enlisted the ability of those about him, but that he recalled those
straying Greeks who had gone to seek their fortunes in other countries. He most
likely, indeed, employed not only his own subjects, but foreigners ; and in that way
probably a considerable portion of v/hat no one can fail to recognize as Oriental
Art, was mixed with that known as Byzantine. Certain it is that in many of
the mosaic ornaments of Sta. Sophia a very marked Oriental character is still
to be traced.

On a close comparison of these mosaics"' with the unique Eusebian Canons on
an entirely gold ground, two leaves of which, painted on both sides, are preserved

* "Treasures of Art in Great Britain," vol i. p. 96.

' Dr. Kugler (" Handbuch der Kunstgeschichte, " p. 401), in speaking of Anglo-Saxon
illuminated manuscripts, observes, "dass wir diese Arbeiten als ein der ersten Zeugnisse des
germanischen Kunstgeistes in seiner Selbstandigkeit, und zugleich als das Vorspiel oder als den
ersten Beginn des romanischen Kunststyles, zu betrachten haljen,"

^ As represented in the plates to Salzenberg's fine work, " Alt-Christliche Baudenkmale von
Constantinopel, vom V. bis XII. Jahrhundert. " Folio, Berlin, 1854.

lo rilE ART OF ILLUMINATING.

in the British Museum (Addit/ No. Sm), and from which the ornaments engraved
in our second plate ^ have been copied, the student will certainly, I think, be induced
rather to agree with Sir Frederick Madden, in ascribing them to the 6th century,
than with Dr. Waagen, who considers that they " can scarcely be older than the
9th century." To the practical illuminator, these fragments are of far higher
importance than all the others to which we have as yet alluded, since, while of equal
archaeological interest, they constitute the earliest specimens from which really
decorative illumination can be studied.^

Anothex illustration of the Eastern influence brought to bear upon Christian
manuscripts of the age of Justinian, is furnished by the celebrated Syriac Gospels of
the 6th century, written in the year 586 (one-and-twenty years after the emperor's
death) by Rabula, a scribe in the monastery of St. John, in Zagba, a city of
Mesopotamia, and now preserved in the Laurentian Library at Florence. Mr.
Westwood regards this as " so important a manuscript in respect to the history of
the arts of illumination and design in the East," and by reflection in the West, that
he is induced^ to give an elaborate description of its embellishments, from which
the following is a short extract : —

" The first illumination represents Christ and the twelve apostles seated in a
circle, with three lamps burning beneath a wide arch supported by two plain
columns, with foliated capitals, and with two birds at the top. The second
illumination represents the Virgin and Child standing within a double arch, the
columns supporting which are tessellated, and the upper arch with several rows of
zigzags, and peacocks standing at the top. The third represents Eusebius and
Ammonius standing beneath a kind of tent-like canopy, supported by three columns,
with undulated ornament, two peacocks with expanded tails standing at the top.
The nineteen following plates are occupied by the tables of the Eusebian Canons,
arranged in columns, between pillars supporting rounded arches, generally enclosed
between larger and more ornamented columns supporting a large rounded arch, on
the outsides of which are represented various groups of figures illustrating scriptural
texts, plants, and birds. In some of these, however, the smaller arches are of the
horseshoe character. The capitals are, for the most part, foliated ; but in one or
two they are composed of human faces, and a few of birds' heads. The arches, as
well as the columns by which they are supported, are ornamented with chevrons,
lozenges, nebules, quatrefoils, zigzags, flowers, fruit, birds, &c. ; many of which
singularly resemble those found in early Anglo-Saxon manuscripts, especially in
the columns supporting the Eusebian Canons in the purple Latin Gospels of
the British Museum (MS. Reg. I.E. 6). There is, however, none of the
singular interlacing of the patterns so characteristic of the Anglo-Saxon and Irish
manuscripts."

I have dwelt thus in detail upon these Greek pictorial and decorative features,
because there can be no doubt that the exportation "of books so adorned, by the

' The whole are given in Shaw's " Illuminated Ornaments," plates i, 2, 3, and 4.
^ It is on this accomit that we have refrained from giving any specimens of manuscripts
anterior to the 6th century.

3 "Palseographia Sacra Pictoria," cap. Syriac MSS,

THE ART OF ILLUMINATING,

II

early missionaries, who carried Christianity and a degree of civilization to the
Northern and Western countries, supplied the original types from which, however
barbaric the imitations, the first attempts were made to rival, in the extreme West,
the arts and spiritual graces of the East. On this plea, I hope I may be pardoned
for dwelling yet further upon some of the leading distinctions between the Byzantine
and Latin (that is, between the Eastern and Western) modes of working out religious
conceptions, which were, that in the Western or Latin mode symbolism was
universal ; the art of the Catacombs was followed distinctly, though frequently
remotely, developing itself in mythical and sentimental forms, and systems of
parallelism between type and prototype. \\\ the Greek Church, the exposition of
faith, through art, took a more tangible forni. Symbolism was avoided on all
possible occasions, and the direct representation of sacred themes led to a partial
transfer to the representation of the adoration due to the thing represented.
Iconoclasm was the reaction to this abuse. In the advanced periods of Greek art,
this realistic tendency led to a painful view of the nature of religion, more
particularly in connection with the martyrdom of saints, and the physical sufferings
of our Saviour and his followers, which are frequently represented in the most
positive and often repellent forms.*

Long, however, before Byzantine Art had time to deviate much from its ancient
traditions, and even while it maintained an easy supremacy over the Westerti
empire, the Lombard kingdom, and all the Visi- and Mceso-Gothic and
Frankish races, a formidable competitor for the leadership in the Art of

' The artistic peculiarities which specially characterize the march of Greek intellect in the
caligraphic direction, have been admirably indicated by Dr. Kugler, in his *' Handbook of
Painting." "Many of the representations of Byzantine art," he observes, " may be traced back
even to classical antiquity (particularly the representations of allegorical figures), and not unfre-
quently contain very significant and clever motives. But the particular knowledge of nature, that
is of the human form, is entirely wanting : this is apparent in the drawing of the naked, and in
the folds of drapery, which follow no law of form, but succeed each other in stiff lines, sharp and
parallel. The heads do not want character, but the expression is not merely defective, — they
have in common something of a spectral rigidity, indicating, in its type-like sameness, a dull
servile constraint. The figures are long and meagre in their proportions, and so lifeless in their
movements, that they set at defiance even the common law of gravity, and appear to totter on
level ground.

*' In the Byzantine manuscript miniatures, the execution is generally distinguished by extreme
finish, though not by particular harmony of colour. A prevailing greenish-yellow dull tone is
peculiar to them : this has been attributed to a more tenacious vehicle, ' which has also produced a
streakiness in the application of the pigment : another peculiarity is the frequent use of gold,
particularly in the grounds, which are entirely gilt. This was not the case with the early Italians,
who also made use of a lighter and moi-e fluid. vehicle."

' "Bindemittel. — The technical term for
the more or less fluid medium, of whatever
kind, with which the colours are mixed, or
which serves to dilute them. The two vehicles
described, by an early Florentine painter,
Ceunini ('Trattato della Pittura,' p. 70), and
which are known to have been very anciently

used, would quite account for the difference
above alluded to. The Greek paintings on
panel were partly done with wax, if an ana-
lysis recorded by Morrona (' Pisa Illustrata ')
was accurate. See Rumorh, 'Ital. Forsch.' i.
312." — Note by the editor, SirC. L. Eastlake,
P.R.A.

12 THE ART OF ILLUMINATING.

Illumination, had sprung up in the extreme West, in the island homes of the
Celtic races.

It is not necessary now to prove, what historians have freely admitted, that
Ireland was certainly christianized for a long time previous to the date of the
mission of Augustine to England. The disputes which arose between the followers
of that saint and the Irish priests, so soon as they clearly apprehended the nature of
the supremacy claimed by the Church of Rome, assure us of their early isolation in
the Christian world. Even in their at first entire, and ultimately partial, rejection of
the Vulgate text of the Gospels, and their retention of the older versions, from
which no doubt their formulas of faith were derived, they steadily maintained their
Ecclesiastical freedom from the dogmatism of Rome. As their creed was inde-
pendent, so was their Art original ; nothing resembling it can be traced previous to
it. " Thus," as Mr. Westwood declares, " at a period when the fine arts may be
said to have been almost extinct in Italy and other parts of the Continent, namely,
from the fifth to the end of the eighth century, a style of Art had been established
and cultivated in Ireland, absolutely distinct from that of all other parts of the
civilized world. There is abundant evidence to prove that in the sixth and
seventh centuries the art of ornamenting manuscripts of the Sacred Scriptures, and
especially of the Gospels, had attained a perfection in Ireland almost marvellous."
• Before proceeding to examine the precise form assumed by this " marvellous
perfection," it may be well to remind the student that, with the exception of a few
manuscripts decorated in the style of the Laurentian Syriac Gospels and the
British Museum golden fragments, the general character of the decoration of
all writings, previous to the origination of the Celtic style in Ireland, had been
limited to the use of different-coloured, golden, and silver inks, on stained purple
and white vellum grounds, to the occasional enlargement of, and slight flourishing
about, initial letters ; to the introduction of pictures, generally square, or oblong,
enclosed in plain, or slightly bordered, frames ; and occasionally, to the scattering
about, throughout the volumes, of a few lines and scrolls. Let us now see —
in the words of Mr. Westwood, who has done more than any previous writer
had done to vindicate the honour of the Irish school of caligraphy^ — what features
of novelty it was mainly reserved for that school to originate. " Its peculiarities,"*
he states, "consist in the illumination of the first page of each of the Sacred
Books, — the letters of the first few words, and more especially the initial,
being represented of a very large size, and highly ornamented in patterns
of the most intricate design, with marginal rows of red dots ; the classical
Acanthus being never represented. The principles of these most elaborate
ornaments are, however, but few in number, and may be reduced to the four
following : — ist. One or more narrow ribbons, diagonally but symmetrically
interlaced, forming an endless variety of patterns. 2nd. One, two, or three slender
spiral lines, coiling one within another till they meet in the centre of the circle,
their opposite ends going off to other circles. 3rd. A vast variety of lacertine
animals and birds, hideously attenuated, and coiled one within another, with their

' O'Conor and others were of course earlier in the field.
^ " Palreographia Sacra Pictoria," Book of Kells, page i.

THE ART OF ILLUMIXATING. 13

tails, tongues, and top-knots forming long narrow ribbons irregularly interlaced.
4th. A series of diagonal lines, forming various kinds of Chinese-like patterns.
These ornaments are generally introduced into small compartments, a number of
which are arranged so as to form the large initial letters and borders, or tessellated
pages, with which the finest manuscripts are decorated. The Irish missionaries
brought their national style of art with them from lona to Lindisfarne in the
seventh century, as well as their fine, large, very characteristic style of writing ;
and as these were adopted 'by their Anglo-Saxon converts, and as most of the
manuscripts which have been hitherto described, are of Anglo-Saxon origin, it. has
been the practice to give the name of Anglo-Saxon to this style of art. Thus
several of the finest facsimiles given by Astle as Anglo-Saxon, are from Irish
manuscripts ; and thus Sylvestre, who has copied them (without acknowledgment),
has fallen into the same error ; whilst Wanley, Casley, and others, appear never to
have had a suspicion of the existence of an ancient school of art in Ireland."

The monks of lona, under the great Irish saint and scribe Columba, or
Columbkill, and their Anglo-Saxon disciples at Lindisfarne, under his friend St.
Aidan, together with the Irish monks at Glastonbury, spread Celtic ornament in
England, from whence it had, to a great extent, retired with the expulsion of the
ancient British. St. Boniface, the principal awakener of Germany to Christianity,
carried with him his singularly ornamented book of Gospels, which is still pre-
served as a relic at Fulda. Similar evidence of the transmission of the Art
prevalent during the early centuries of the Church in Ireland, to other lands, by
means of the missionaries who left her shores, is to be found in the books of
St. Kilian, the apostle of Franconia, still preserved at Wurtzburg; in those of
St. Gall, now in the public library of St. Gall, in the canton of Switzerland which
still bears his name; and in the very important series, of which Muratori has
given an interesting catalogue, connected with the monastic institution founded
by St. Columbanus, at Bobbio, in Italy, and now principally in the Ambrosian
Library at Milan. Many of these pious men were themselves scribes, and their
autograph copies of the Holy Gospels are still in existence, with the name of
the writers, in some cases identifying the volumes, and absolutely fixing their
date. Thus we have the Gospels of St. Columba, the Leabhar Dhimma, or
(Gospels of St. Dhimma MacNathi, and the MacRegol Gospels in the Bodleian
Library. All of these are anterior to the ninth century, and are distinguished by
an elaborate' style of ornament unlike any other European type. The extent of
influence exercised by these eminent m.en and the " Episcopi Vagantes," or
missionaries, is strongly insisted upon by M. Libfi, unquestionably one of the
most eminent and correctly-informed bibliographers of the present day. Speaking
of the latitudinarianism of some among these Christian men, he observes, " No
doubt certain pious but narrow minds hoped to open the door to ecclesiastical
literature only ; but the exclusion sometimes pronounced against the classics was
never general amongst writers v/ho, even in their rudeness, always showed them-
selves imitators of antiquity. Thus we find that the celebrated manuscript of
Livy, in the Imperial Library at Vienna, belonged to Sutbert, an Irish monk, one
of those wandering bishops who, towards the close of the seventh century, had gone

14 THE ART OF ILLUMINATING.

to preach Christianity, and, as it would seem also, to teach Roman history in
Belgium. One cannot help remarking, that the most celebrated of these pious
missionaries, St. Columbanus, laid the foundations at Luxeuil in France, at St. Gall
in Switzerland, and at Bobbio in Italy, of three monasteries which afterwards
became famous for their admirable manuscripts, in many of Avhich the influence of
the Irish and Anglo-Saxon schools can be recognized at a glance. The library of
St. Gall is too celebrated to require mention. The Bobbio manuscripts are known
everywhere by the discoveries which have been made in the palimpsests which once
belonged to that collection. As for the manuscripts of Luxeuil, they have been
dispersed; but the specimens of them which are to be found in the Libri
collection, joined to what has been published on the subject by Mabillon,
O'Conor, and others, prove unanswerably that in this abbey, as well as in that of
Stavelot in Belgium, and other ancient monasteries on the Continent, a school of
writing and mmiature had sprung up, as remarkable for the beauty of its caligraphy,
as for the care applied to reproduce the forms of the Anglo-Irish schools."^

In delicacy of handling, and minute but faliltless ^execution, the whole range of
palaeography offers nothing comparable to these early Irish manuscripts, and those
produced in the same style in England. When in Dublin, some years ago, I had
the opportunity of studying very carefully the most marvellous of all — " The Book
of Kells ; " some of the ornaments of which I attempted to copy, but broke down
in despair. Of this very book, Mr. Westwood examined the pages, as I did, for
hours together, without ever detecting a false line, or an irregular interlacement.
In one space of about a quarter of an inch superficial, he counted, with a
magnifying glass, no less than one hundred and fifty-eight interlacements, of a
slender ribbon pattern, formed of white lines, edged by black ones, upon a black
ground. No wonder that tradition should allege that these unerring lines should
have been traced by angels.^ HoAvever " angelic " the ornaments may be, but
little can be said in favour of the figure subjects occasionally introduced. In some
manuscripts, such as the Book of Kells, in pose and motive it is generally obvious
that some ancient model has been held in view ; but nothing can be more barbaric
than the imitation ; while in the other specimens, such as the so-called autograph
Gospels of St. Columba, or Columbkill, who died a.d. 594, two years before the
advent of St. Augustine — the Book of St. Chads, or the Gospels of MacRegol, — no
such evidence of imitation is to be met with, and the figures are altogetlier abortive.

I was enabled some years ago, by the kindness of the Rev. J. H. Todd, the
learned librarian of Trinity College, Dublin, to compare the so-called autograph
Gospels of St. . Columba with tlie Book of Kells, which is traditionally supposed to
have belonged to that saint, and remained strongly impressed with the superior

* Catalogue of the Libri collection of MSS., Introduction by M. Libri, pages xiv. and xxvi.
London, 1859.

^ Giraldus Cambrensis, speaking probably of this very book, says, "Sin autem ad perspicacius
intuentuni oculorum aciem invitaveris, et longe penitus ad artis arcana transpenetraveris, tam
delicatas et subtiles, tarn actas et arctas, tam nodosas et vinculatim colligatas, tamque recentibus
adhuc coloribus illustratas, notare poteris intricaturas, lit vere htcc omnia angelica potius quam
humana diligentia jam asseveraveris esse composita."

THE ART OF ILLUMINATING. 15

antiquity of the former to the latter. The one may have been his property, and
the other illuminated in his honour after his death, as was the case with the Gospels of
St. Cuthbert. In none of them, at any period, were shadows represented otherwise
than by apparent inlayings under the eyes and beside the nose ; and yet, at the
same time, the ornaments were most intricate, and often very beautiful, both in
form and colour. The purple stain is frequently introduced, and is of excellent
quality ; but gold appears, so far as I have been able to observe, only in the
Durham Book, and in that even most sparingly.^ From that precious volume
several of the subjects on our PI. 5, 7th Century, and all upon 7th Century,
PL 6, have been taken. It is the most celebrated production of the Anglo-
Hibernian monastery of Lindisfarne, founded by St. Aidan and the Irish monks of
lona, or Icolumkille, in the year 634.

St. Cuthbert, who was made bishop of Lindisfarne in 685, was renowned as
well for his piety as for his .learning ; he died in 698, and, as a monument to his
memory, his successor. Bishop Eadfrith, caused to be written this noble volume,
generally called the Durham Book, and known also as St. Cuthbert's Gospels, now
in the British Museum. This manuscript, surpassed in grandeur only by the Book
of Kells, in the same style, was greatly enriched by ^thelwald, bishop of
Lindisfarne, who succeeded Eadfrith in 721, and caused St. Cuthbert's book to be
richly illuminated by the hermit Bilfrith, who prefixed an elaborate painting of an
Evangelist to each of the four Gospels, and also illuminated the capital letters at
the commencement of each book. The bishop caused the whole to be encased in
a splendid binding of gold, set with precious stones ; and in 950 a priest named
Aldred rendered the book still more valuable by interlining it with a Saxon version
of the original manuscript, which is the Latin text of St. Jerome.

Want of space alone prevents our following Simeon of Durham in his touching
narrative of the circumstances which attended the translation of this volume,
together with the body of the much-loved saint, to Durham Cathedral, in which
both were long and profoundly venerated. The peculiar importance of this volume
in the history of Illumination, consists in its clearly establishing, by its coincidence
with earlier examples, the class of caligraphy practised by that primitive Church^ and
people, to whom Gregory the Great despatched St. Augustine, at the end of the •
6th century. With the mission, which reached its destination, and effected the
conversion of Ethelbert and of many of his subjects, in the year 597, Gregory
forwarded certain sacred volumes, of which the following were long preserved
with the greatest veneration : — A Bible in two volumes ; two Psalters ; two books of
the Gospels ; a book of Martyrology ; apocryphal Lives of the Apostles, and
expositions of certain Epistles and Gospels.

The first — the Bible — which was beautifully written on purple and rose-coloured

^ It is more abundantly used in Vesp. A i, which, as we shall have occasion to notice hereafter,
is in a very mixed style.

' Bede expressly says, that at Augustine's sjniod, held at the commencement of the 7tli century,
the bishops and learned men attending it, "after a long disputation, refused to comply vv^ith the
entreaties, exhortations, or rebukes of the saint and his companions, but preferred their own
traditions before all the churches in the world, which in Christ agree among themselves. "

1 6 THE ART OF ILLUMINATING.

leaves, with rubricated capitals, was certainly in existence in the reign of James I.
Mr. Westwood (" Palaeographia Sacra," 1843-45) looks upon the magnificent purple
Latin Gospels of the British Museum (Royal Library, i E 6) as " no other than the
remains of the Gregorian Bible." In this, with the utmost respect for his opinion,
I cannot concur, since the fragment exhibits far too many genuine Saxon features
to have been possibly executed in the Eastern or Western empires, previous to the
date of the mission of St. Augustine. That it may have been produced in this
country, in imitation of the more classical original, by the immediate followers of
the saint, is, I consider, very highly probable ; and from the tenour of Mr.
Westwood's recent writing, in the " Archaeological Journal," 1859, it may be
inferred that his opinion may have been modified since the issue of his profoundly
valuable work — the " Palaeographia Sacra Pictoria."

The second — the two Psalters — have disappeared. Several learned men have
indeed looked upon the British Mirseum Cottonian MSS. Vesp. A i, from which
our 7th Century, Pis. 3 and 4, have been taken, as one of these celebrated books,
but, as I venture to tliink, erroneously ; for it is difficult to believe that ornaments,
so entirely of the ^Anglo-Irish school of Lindisfame, as those we have engraved,
could have been executed at Rome during either the 6th or even the 7 th century.
Nothing is more probable than that, out of the forty persons who are believed to
have constituted Augustine's mission, several should have been skilled, as most
ecclesiastics then were, in writing and in the embellishment of books ; and in any
school established by St. Augustine for the multiplication of those precious volumes,
without which ministrations and teachings in consonance with Roman dogmas
could not be carried on in the new churches and monastic institutions founded
among the converts, it is most likely that the native scribes, on their conversion,
should be employed to write and decorate the holy tpxts, with every ornament
excepting those of a pictorial nature. In the execution of these, they could
scarcely prove themselves as skilful as the followers of St. Augustine would,
from their retention of some classical traditions, be likely to be. Thus, and thus
only, as I believe, can we account for the singular combination of semi-antique
with Saxon writing, and of Latin body-colour pictures, executed almost entirely
with the brush, and regularly shadowed (such as David with his Attendants, in the
Vespasian A i Psalter), with ornaments of an absolutely different character, such
as the a ch and pilaster, engraved on our plate 7th Century, PI. 8, Fig. 9, which
form the framework for the picture of King David. Another argument, which
weighs greatly in my mind against the probability of such a Psalter as Vespasian
A I being a prototype, is the fact, that the LTtrecht and Harleian Psalters, to both
of which I shall have occasion again to allude, in their pictorial illustrations, present
us with evident copies, in outline, of some classic coloured original ; just, in fact, of
such a manuscript of the Psalms as the celebrated Vatican Roll ^ is of the book of
Joshua. What more likely than that one of the venerated Psalters brought from
Rome should have been such a manuscript, and should have been the very one
copied in the case of the Utrecht Psalter, in the " rustic capitals " of the original,
and in the later Harleian replica in the current Saxon uncial %

' D'Agincourt, " Painting," plates xxviii. xxix. xxx.

THE ART OF ILLUMiyATIXG. 17

As respects the third class of Augustinian books — the Gospels^ — the case is far
difterent ; for the accredited and traditional originals are, in every respect, such as
would be likely to have been produced at Rome or at Constantinople, but most
probably the former, during the pontificate of (^regory the Great. Fragments of
the most important of these Gospels are preserved in the library of Corpus Christi
College, Cambridge. They are written in black ink generally, with occasional lines
in red, in the ancient manner. Two pages only of illuminations are left, though it
is evident that the volume once contained a large and complete series. The most
important of these represents St. Luke, clad in tunic and toga, seated under just
such a triumphal arch as is frequently to be met with in the Roman Mosaics of the
5th and 6th centuries.^ The second illuminated page comprises a series of small
scjuare pictures, framed round with the simple red line of the oldest Latin
manuscripts.

The other Augustinian fragmentary Gospel is to be found among the Hatton
manuscripts in the Bodleian Library, Oxford : it is without any other illumination
than the contrast of red and black ink, and a few ornaments about some of the
initial letters. The evidence upon which it may be assumed that these volumes
were either brought to this country by St. Augustine, or formed some of the
" codices multos," ^ sent by Gregory the Great to the mission on its establishment,
rests not only upon the antiquity and purely Latin character of the fragments, but
on the fact that both Gospels contain entries in Saxon of upwards of one thousand
years old, connecting them with the library of the Abbey of St. Augustine at
Canterbury ; and, furthermore, they correspond with the description given by a
monk of that monastery, who, writing in the reign of Henry V., dwells upon the
" primitie librorum totius Ecclesie Anglicane " preserved in that library, as the very
Gospels in the version of St. Jerome, brought to England by St. Augustine himself.

The Martyrology, the apocryphal Lives of the Apostles, and the Expositions
which completed the series, cannot be now identified.

To rapidly multiply copies of these text-books of the Church of Rome, was, no
doubt, one of the first and most important duties of the monks of Canterbury ; and
from the traces we may detect in various manuscripts of the Anglo-Saxon mode of
writing and ornamenting Avriting, combined with paintings such as the Anglo-
Saxons were incompetent to execute for some time after the close of the 6th
century, we may safely infer that the monks both worked themselves and largely
employed the native scribes. Thus, as Mr. Westwood observes in a recent article
in the "Archaeological Journal," "We have sufficient evidence that, soon after the
settlement of the followers of St. Augustine, there must have been established a
scriptorium, where some of the most beautiful manuscripts were written in the
purest uncial or rustic capitals, but decorated with initials in the Anglo-Saxon or
Irish style. Of such MSS. we can now record —

" I. The purple Gospels at Stockholm, written in very large uncials, but with
illuminated title-pages, Avith pure Anglo-Saxon ornaments, and grand figures of the
Evangelists in a mixed classical and Anglo-Saxon style.

' This precious volume and its illustrations were first figured and descril^cd by Mr. Westv. god.
' "Life of Gregory the Great," by Johannes Diaconiis, lib. ii. cap, 37.

C

1 8 THE ART OF ILLUMINATING.

'' 2. The Utrecht Gospels.

" 3. The Gospels in the Cathedral Library, Durham ; Astle's ^ Origin and
Progress of Writing,' pi. 14, fig. B., p. 83.

" 4. The Utrecht Psalter.

" 5. The so-called Psalter of St. Augustine, MSS. Cotton., Vespasian, A i ;
Astle, pi. 9, fig. 2.

"6. The Bodleian MS. of the Rule of St. Benedict; Lord Hatton's MSS.,
No. 93 ; Astle, pi. 9, fig. i, p. 82.^

" Were it not for the initials, and other illuminations in the genuine Anglo-
Saxon style, not one of these MSS. would be supposed to be executed in
England. They are, nevertheless, among the finest specimens of early caligraphic
art in existence."

One of the most important of this interesting class of manuscripts is,
unquestionably, that of the Psalms, now preserved in the public library at
Utrecht. Jt was formerly in the possession of Sir Robert Cotton, and should
be now with the rest of his library in the British Museum. The volume contains,
besides the Psalms, the " Pusillus eram," the Credo, and the Canticles, with a few
leaves from the Gospel of St. Matthew. It is written upon vellum, and each psalm
has a pen-and-ink illustration, in the same style as those in the Harleian Psalter,
No. 603, which was written in the loth century, and similar also to those in the
Cambridge Psalter of the 12th century. The writing in the Utrecht Psalter is
executed in Roman rustic capitals ; it is arranged in three columns in each page ;
and the elegance with which the letters are formed would place the manuscripts
amongst those of the 6th or 7th century : but the illustrations before mentioned,
with the large uncial B, heightened with gold, in the Saxon interlaced style, which
commences the first psalm, would give it a later date, certainly not earlier than the
7th or 8th century; and the pen-and-ink drawings were probably executed a
century later.

Mr. Westwood, to whose highly interesting "Archjeological Notes of a Tour in
Denmark, Prussia, and Holland," published in the "Archaeological Journal," I am
indebted for the above information, tells us that the date of the few pages of the
Gospel, mentioned as being bound up in this volume, is as uncertain as that of
the Psalter ; the text being written in a style which would place it amongst the
works of the 6th or 7th century, whilst the word *' Liber," with which it com-
mences, is written in large square Roman capitals, in gold, with the remains of
ornament similar to that in the Psalter of St. Augustine. Mr. Westwood says,
that the title page and inscriptions are "written in eight lines, in uncials even larger
than those of the Psalter of St. Germain des Pres, but enclosed within an
ornamental circle, with an interlaced pattern, in the interstices of which is
inscribed, >J< APIA MAPIA BOHGHPO TO. PPA^ANTL"

That which gives, however, its greatest value to the Utrecht Psalter, is the
remarkable freedom and cleverness of the pen-and-ink drawings with which it is
embellished. In them may be recognized, I believe, the earliest trace of those

• I tmst that ere long Mr, Westwood will add to this list the supposed fragment of the ••Biblia
Gregoriana," alluded t^ at page 16 of this essay.

THE ART OF ILLUMINATING. 19

peculiar fluttered draperies, elongated proportions, and flourished touches, which
became almost a distinct style in later Anglo-Saxon illumination. So different is
it, both from the Anglo-Hibernian work, prevalent in England up to the advent of
St. Augustine, and from the contemporary imitation of the antique, practised by
Byzantine, Latin, Lombard, or Frankish illuminators, that the conclusion seems,
as it were, forced upon us, that it can have been originated in no other way than
by setting the already most skilful penman, but altogether ignorant artist, to
reproduce, as he best could, the freely-painted miniatures of the books, sacred
and profane, imported, as we know, in abundance, from Rome, during the
7th and 8th centuries.

To so great an extent do antique types and features prevail in the earlier
specimens of this class of Anglo-Saxon volumes, that, until comparatively recently^
the catalogue of the Utrecht Library has designated the illustrations of the Psalter
now under notice, as evidently productions of the reign of Valentinian ; ^ while
the outline subjects, in a similar style, and of considerably later date, which are
introduced in the British Museum " Aratus," were attributed, by even Mr. Ottley's
critical judgment, to a somewhat similar period.

The Harleian Psalter (No. 603), to which allusion has been already made,
page 16, although written in later characters, is decorated with many pictures, all
but identical with those in the Utrecht manuscript, thereby demonstrating, with
comparative certainty, that both were taken from some popular prototype, possibly
one of the Augustinian Psalters already alluded to.'"*

The Bodleian Caedmon's, or pseudo-C?edmon's, " Metrical Paraphrase of the
Book of Genesis," written and illustrated in outline,'* during the loth or nth
century, and the ^^Ifric's Heptateuch of the British Museum, " Cottonian,
Claudius B iv.," of a somewhat later date, afford excellent illustrations of the
enduring popularity of this peculiar mode of outline drawing. The striking
difference may. however, be noted between these later and the earlier specimens
in the same style, that whereas the types of the latter are, with scarcely any
exception, antique, those of the former are comparatively original, and exhibit
that strong inclination to caricature, which has always formed one of the leading
features of English illumination.

' The words are, " qua} omnia illustrantur Romano habitu, figuris, et antiquitatc. Imperatoris
Valcntiniani tempora videntur attingere. " This mistake of the old librarian has been corrected with
much care and learning by the Baron van Tiellandt. — See his " Naspeuringen nopens zekeren
Codex Psalmorum in de Utrechtsche Boekerij berustende, door W. H. J. Baron van Westreeinen
van Tiellandt."

2 The MS. department of the British Museum possesses some tracings from the Utrecht Psalter,
and on confronting them with the Harleian 603, it requires a sharp eye to detect the slight
differences existing between several of the illustrations to each of the volumes. In the Harleian
volume, all the subjects hav6 not been filled in ; some are left out altogether, spaces being
reserved for them in the text, and others are faintly traced with a leaden or silver point,
preparatory to inking in : very few artists of the present day could block in the general forms
in so peculiar a style with greater freedom or more complete conveyance of expression, by similarly
slight indications.

^ The whole of the illumination^ are given in the twenty-fourth volume of the " Archa^ologia."
The manuscript stands in the Bodleian Catalogue, "Junius, No. II."

C 2

20 THE ART OF ILLUMINATING.

While, in this class of Anglo-Saxon manuscripts, the influence of Latin art
may be traced on the original Hiberno-British school of scribes, a corresponding
change was effected through the introduction into this country of specimens of
the more brilHant examples of Byzantine execution or derivation. Thus, as Sir
Frederick Madden observes,^ " The taste for gold and purple manuscripts seems
only to have reached England at the close of the 7th century, when Wilfrid,
archbishop of York, enriched his church with a copy of the Gospels thus
adorned ; and it is described by his biographer, Eddius (who lived at that period
or shortly after), as ' inauditum ante seculis nostris quoddam miraculum,' — almost
a miracle, and before that time unheard of in this part of the world. But in the
8th and 9th centuries the art of staining the vellum appears to have declined, and
the colour is no longer the same bright and beautiful purple, violet, or rose-colour
of the preceding centuries. It is rare also to meet with a volume stained
throughout ; the artist contenting himself with colouring a certain portion, such
as the title, preface, or canon of the mass. Manuscripts written in letters of gold,
on white vellum, are chiefly confined to the 8th, 9th, and loth centuries. Of
these, the Bible and Hours of Charles the Bald, preserved in the Royal Library
at Paris, and the Gospels of the Harleian collection. No. 2788, are probably the
finest examples extant. In England, the art of writing in gold seems to have
been but imperfectly understood in early times, and the instances of it very
uncommon. Indeed, the only remarkable one that occurs of it is the Charter of
King Edgar to the new minster at Winchester in the year 966. This volume is
written throughout in gold."

Although but few books were thus gorgeously written, many were sumptuously
decorated ; and, indeed, there exist no more brilliant volumes than some of those
produced by Anglo-Saxon scribes. Of these many exist ; but if two or three only
are noticed, it will be quite sufficient to establish the leading characteristics of
the school, v/hich appears to have been organized under St. Ethelwold, bishop of
Vv'inchester, at New Minster, or Hyde Abbey, near Winchester, during the loth
century. The names of several leading masters of that great nursery of illumi-
nation have been handed down to us. Thus Ethric and Wulfric — monks — are
recorded as having been " painters ; " but Godwin is spoken of as the greatest of
all. Fortunately, a magnificent specimen of his art is preserved in the celebrated
benedictional of St. Ethelwold, in the library of the Duke of Devonshire, and
engraved in extenso, with great care, in the twenty-fourth volume of the " Archaeo-
logia."^ This is one of the most sumptuous manuscripts which has been

' Introduction to Shaw's " Illuminated Ornaments," pages 4 and 5.

' The following inscription, written in letters of gold on the reverse of the fourth leaf and the
bottom of the recto of the fifth, identifies both the artist and the patron under whose auspices the
volume was executed, between the years 970 and 984, the term of Ethelwold's occupation of the
see of Winchester : —

'' Presentem Biblum jussit perscribere Presul
Wintoniffi Diis que fecerat esse Patronunl
Magnus .-Ethckvoldns * * *

^ 4: 4: ^ ^ H< *

Atque Patri magno jussit qui scribcre librum hiinc

THE ART OF ILl.UMIXATIXG. 21

executed in any age by any scribe, and differs widely from the Anglo-Saxon
MSS. previously described. The text is generally enclosed within a rich
framework, formed by wide and solid bars of gold, about and over which twine
and break elegantly-shaded masses of conventional foliation. In the initial
letters, and occasionally in the ornament, the peculiarly Saxon interlacing and
knotwork is retained ; but, in most of the embellishments, a reaction can be
traced from the Carlovingian manuscripts themselves, originally acted upon, as
will be hereafter seen, by the Saxon school of caligraphy.^ The figure subjects
in this volume are cramped in style and action, exhibit but little classical influence,
and possess, as a leading merit, only a singularly sustained brilliancy of tint and
even execution throughout.

Next to this great masterpiece, and from the same fountain-head, come the
following, several of which are exceedingly beautiful : — The two Rouen Gospels ;
the Gospels of King Canute, in the British Museum, Reg. D 9 (loth Century,
plate 23) ; the Cottonian Psalter, Tib. C vi. ; the Hyde Abbey Book, lately in
the Stowe Library ; and the Gospels of Trinity College, Cambridge. The orna-
ments in all these volumes are painted in thick body-colours, and with a vehicle
so viscid in texture, that Dr. Dibdin ^ infers from its character, as evidenced in
the Benedictional, ''the possibility or even probability of oil being mixed up in
the colours of the more ancient illuminations." In this opinion I do not concur,
as I believe the peculiar body and gloss of the pigment to be produced by the use
of white of egg.

I have dwelt in some detail upon Saxon illumination, for two reasons : firstly,
because it is a theme on which some national self gratulation may be justifiably
entertained;-^ and secondly, because it is one on which, although much has
been written, comparatively little light has as yet been thrown. Before leaving
it, however, some general observations should be made upon the classes of books
most in demand, and the means by which they were multiplied in this country ;
and, indeed, with slight local differences, on the great continent of Europe as
well, — Byzantium, Ravenna, Rome, Monte Cassino, Subiaco, Paris, Tours,

Omnes cernentes bibkim hunc semper rogitent hoc

Post meta carnis valeam cells in herere

Obnixe hoc rogitat Scriptor supplex Godemaniiy

' If the celebrated coronation book of the Anglo-Saxon kings (see Plate 9th Century, No, i),
should turn out to have been written and illuminated in this country, it would afford a striking
illustration of this reaction. The general opinion, however, appears to be, among the leamed, that
it may have been given to Athelstan l)y Otho of Germany, who married his sister, and by Matilda,
Otho's mother. The argimients in favour of, and against, the Anglo-Saxon origin of the volume
would be too long to discuss in this place. The writing is mainly Carlovingian.

2 "Bib. Dec." vol, i. p. cxxii.

^ It is to be regretted that the propriety of those just and learned remarks of Muratori, in which
he exhibited himself as one of tlie earliest foreign scholars inclined to do justice to the ancient
Irish and British schools, — Neque 'enim silenda laus Britannire, Scotite, et Hibernise, qua; studio
liberalium artium eo tempore antecellebant reliquis occidentalibus regnis ; et cura proesertim
monachonim, qui literarum gloriam, alilii aut languentem aut depressam, in iis regionibus impigre
suscitarent atque tuebantur" (Murat. "Antiq. Ital," diss, 43), — should have been impugned by the
Rev. Mr. Berington in his "Literary History of the Middle Ages," pages 180, i8i.

22 THE ART OF ILLUMINATING.

Limoges, Aries, Soissons, .Blois, Aix-la-Chapelle, Cologne, Hildesheim, Worms,
Treves, Glastonbury, Canterbury, Winchester, York, Durham, Lindisfarne,
Wearmouth, Jarrow, Croyland, and Peterborough, being the great centres of
production.

From the earliest period religious zeal was much shown in its offerings to the
Church, by laymen, more or less pious, — the least pious being, in fact, sometimes
the most liberal donors, — and very large sums were expended in illuminating and
ornamenting manuscripts for that purpose. Many of these books were remarkable
for the extreme beauty of the paintings and ornamental letters enriched with
gold and silver, which decorate them, as well as for the execution of the writing,
the most precious bindings frequently adding greatly to their cost. Gospels, books
of anthems, and Missals, were most frequently chosen for such gifts ; but they were
not confined to sacred subjects, including occasionally the best writings of Greece
and Rome, which were eagerly sought after as models of eloquence, and, still more,
as often being supposed to contain prophecies of the coming of Christ, and proofs
of the truth of his doctrines.

The piety of individuals often led them to expend large sums in the pre-*
paration of their oiferings to the Church ; the finest and best parchment which
could be procured, being used for manuscripts. When black ink was used in
liturgical writings, the title-page and heads of the chapters were written in red ink ;
whence comes the term Rubric. Green, blue, and yellow inks were used,
sometimes for words, but chiefly for ornamental capital letters ; the writers and
miniature-painters exercising their own taste and judgment in the decoration, and
heightening its effect with gold and the most expensive colours, such as azure
and the purest cinnabar.^

The greater part of these works were entrusted to monks and their clerks,
who were exhorted by the rules of their order, to learn writing, and to persevere
in the work of copying manuscripts, as being one most acceptable to God ;
those who could not write being recommended to learn to bind books. Alcuin
entreats all to employ themselves in copying books, saying, " It is a most
meritorious work, more useful to the health than working in the fields, which
profits only a man's body, whilst the labour of a copyist profits his soul."^

Home production could, however, by no means suffice to multiply books, and
especially religious books, with sufficient rapidity to satisfy the eager demand for
them. Long journeys appear to have been taken to foreign countries, by learned
ecclesiastics for scarcely any other purpose than the collection of manuscripts ;

* These pious monks, until prol)ably some time after the Norman conquest, generally worked
together in an apartment capable of containing many persons, and in which many persons did, in
fact, work together at the transcription of books. The first of these points is implied in a curious
document, which is one of the very few extant specimens of French Visi-Gothic MS. in uncial
characters, of the 8th century. It is a short but beautiful form of consecration or benediction,
barbarously entitled "Orationem iij Scripturio," and is to tlie following effect : "Vouchsafe,
O Lord, to bless this Scriptorium of thy servants^ and all that divcll therein ; that whatsoever
sacred writing shall be here read or written by them, they may receive with understanding
and bring the same to good effect, through our Lord," &c. — See Merryweather's "Bibliomania
in the Middle Ages,"

THE ART OF ILLUMINATING, 23

while quantities were imported into England from abroad. Thus Bede tells us,
that Wilfrid, bishop of Wearmouth and Jarrow, and Acca, Wilfrid's successor,
collected many books abroad for their libraries, at the end of the 7 th century.
Thus Theodore of Tarsus brought back an extensive library of Grecian and
Roman authors on his return to Canterbury, in 668, from a mission to Rome ;
and thus, as we are told by Mr. Maitland,^ when " Aldhelm, who became Bishop
of Schirebum in the year 705, went to Canterbury, to be consecrated by his old
friend and companion Berthwold (pariter Hteris studuerant, pariterque viam
religionis triverant), the archbishop kept him there many days, taking counsel
with him about the affairs of his diocese. Hearing of the arrival of the ships at
Dovor during this time, he went there to inspect their unloading, and to see if they
had brought anything in his way (si quid forte commodmn ecdesiastico nsui attulissent
iiautce qui e Gallico sinu in Angliam provedi lihrorum copiam apportassent).
Among many other books he saw one containing the whole of the Old and
New Testaments, which he at length bought ; and William of Malmesbury,
who wrote his life in the 12 th century, tells us it was still preserved at that
place."

How deeply must all lovers of illumination regret the infinite destruction of
books that has prevailed in all ages ! Of all this " librorum copiam," how few
survive. Even in the days of Alfred the Great, the Danes had destroyed the
majority of them ; for as that great royal Bibliomaniac exclaims, in his preface to
the " Pastoral of Gregory," — " I saw, before all were spoiled and burnt, how
the churches throughout Britain were filled with treasures and books."

I now leave our own country for a while, and return to the general continent
of Europe, having, I trust, satisfactorily established the individuality of those
three great styles of illumination, from the fusion of which the Romanesque, and
ultimately the Mediaeval, system sprang, — viz., the Roman, or pictorial ; the
Greek, or golden ; and the Hiberno-Saxon, or intricate. The commencement of
that fusion has been traced in the later Anglo-Saxon work, and it now remains to
observe the circumstances under which a similar, and even more marked, amalga-
mation took place on the Continent, under the auspices of Charlemagne, the
greatest patron of the art who ever lived.

In the series of 8th Century, Ps. 7, 8, 9, and 10, of this work, are given
various examples of the illuminated letters prevalent in different parts of Europe
before this amalgamation was effected ; and a comparison of them with the three
preceding plates, will at once suffice to show that the only features of design in
the former series, of any merit, are but imperfect renderings of the leading
characteristics of the latter.

The specimens on 8th Century, 8 and 9, which are taken from manuscripts
executed by Visi-Gothic races, whose style had been remotely affected only by
that carried abroad by the early Irish missionaries, are of an altogether barbaric
description.

Much has been assumed by early Palaeographers, and even some recent ones,
with respect to the influence exercised by the Lombard MSS., executed between
* "Dark Ages," second edition, p. 193.

24 THE ART OF JLLUMI.VATIXG.

the establishment of the Lombard kingdom in the year 568, and its absorption
A.D. 774, in the empire of Charlemagne, on the class of illmiiination introduced
under his auspices ; but the specimens which have descended to these days
exhibit such an entire decrepitude of style, as to justify the belief that, with the
exception of a peculiar broken-backed letter, known as " Lombard brise," the
Lombards themselves contributed little or nothing to the results which attended
the efforts made by that great sovereign to raise the art of book-decoration in his
day to its highest pitch. It was mainly by the aid, and through the direct
instrumentality of the learned Anglo-Saxon, Alcuin, that Charlemagne carried out
his laudable design. This industrious ecclesiastic, Avho was born in the year 735,
received his education under Egbert and Elbert, successive archbishops of the
see of York, — having been appointed at an early age, " custodian " to the library
collected by the former. On the death of Elbert he was sent to Rome to receive
the pallium of investiture for the new archbishop Enbalde. On his journey
home, in 780, he passed through Parma, where Charlemagne happened to be at
the time. The consequence of their meeting in that city was, that Alcuin received
and accepted an invitation to take up his residence at the court of the Frankish
sovereign. During four-and-twenty years, until his death, indeed, in 804, he
retained the affection and respect of his royal patron, and occupied himself in
incessant labour for the advancement of learning, and the multiplication of pure
texts of the Holy Scriptures and other good books. Several of Alcuin's letters to
Charlemagne are still extant, in which the supremacy of the English schools and
libraries is distinctly recognized, as well as the direct influence exercised by them
on Frankish literature, and, as in those days literature and illumination were
inseparable, on illumination also. Thus, in one place he begs his master to give
him " those exquisite books of erudition which I had in my own country by
the good and devout industry of my master Egbert, the archbishop." Again,
referring to the same " treasures of wisdom," he proposes, — " If it shall please
your wisdom, I will send some of our boys v/ho may copy from thence whatever is
necessary, and carry back into France the flowers of Britain ; that the garden may
not*be shut up in York, but the fruits of it may be placed in the paradise of Tours."

One of the evidences of the eagerness with which this task of multiplying the'
sources of learning was carried on, is to be found in the attempts made to abridge
and expedite labour. Thus, as M. Chassant ^ observes in his useful little manual
of abbreviations'^ used during the Middle Ages, the texts of all documents
of importance were comparatively free from contractions from the period when
Justinian the Great banished them, by an imperial edict, from all legal instruments,
until the accession of Charlemagne, " during whose reign, either to save time or
veflum, the scribes revived the ancient Roman practice of using initials, and
frequently arbitrary signs, to represent whole words of frequent recurrence."

It is, however, in the quality, rather than the quantity, of Carlovingian MSS.

that the reader is most likely to be interested ; and I therefore hasten to note

two or three of the most imposing specimens. The earliest of the grand class is

beheved to be the Evangelistiarium, Jong preserved in the Abbey of St. Servin,

' Librarian of the town of Evreux. ' Cornemillot, Evreux, 1846.

THE ART OF ILLUMINATING, 25

at Toulouse, and ultimately presented to Napoleon I., on the baptism of the King
of Rome, in the name of the city. From contemporary entries, it appears to
have been completed after eight years' labour, in the year 781, by the scribe
Godescalc. Of whatever nation " Godescalc " may have been, the volume ^
exhibits far too many composite features to justify the belief that any one
indiAddual, or even many individuals of one nation, could have executed the
whole. The paintings are probably by an Italian hand, being executed freely
with the brush in opaque colours, in the antique manner. Many of the golden
borders are quite Greek in style, while the initial letters, and others of the borders,
are thoroughly Hiberno-Saxon. A nearly similar dissection would apply to most
of the manuscripts executed for Charlemagne's descendants, to the third gene-
ration. The volume contains 127 leaves, every leaf, not entirely filled with
illumination, being stained pyrple, with a white margin, and covered widi a
text, written in golden initials, in two columns, separated by very graceful and
delicately-executed borders. Our plates 8th Century, Ps. 11 and 12, give a
good idea of the nature of the ornament usually employed in similar MSS. to fill
up such borders and initial letters.

From Charlemagne's " Scriptorium." which was no doubt the head-quarters
of the best artists of all nations in his time, proceeded many other volumes of
scarcely less interest and magnificence. Among these the most noteworthy are,
the Gospels of St. Medard de Soissons,^ so called because believed to have been
presented by Charlemagne to that Abbey ; ^ the Vienna Psalter, written for Pope
Hadrian ; the Gospels preserved in the library of the arsenal at Paris, and
formerly belonging to the Abbaye of St. Martin des Champs ;^ the Gospels
found upon the knees of the Emperor on opening his tomb at Aix-la-Chapelle ;
the Harieian MS. No. 3788, known as the "Codex Aureus;"'' and last,
not least, the Bible known as that of San Calisto, preserved in the Benedictine
monastery of that saint at Rome, and formerly in the monastery of San
Paolo fuori le Mura. The frontispiece to this volume, which is no less
than one foot four inches high, by one foot one inch wide, represents a
sitting emperor holding a globe, on which are inscribed various letters, arranged in
the peculiar form adopted by Charlemagne in his signs manual.

The learned have disputed hotly whether this portrait is intended for that of
Charlemagne, or of Charles the Bald, his grandson. Whether this manuscript,
which, in all respects, except beauty in the figure-subjects, I look upon as the
finest I have ever seen, was executed in the days of the former or latter monarch,
is of no very great moment, as its leading features would harmonize very well with

' Du Sommerard, in " Les Arts du Moyen Age," has given copies of all the illuminations, and
Mr. Westwood a page of specimens.

' Comit Bastard gives no less than six grand facsimiles from this volume, wliich is one of the
greatest lions of the Bibliotheque Imperiale at Paris.

' One of the most curious illuminations in the book, the celebrated " fontaine mystique" of the
church, is altogether antique in style and execution,

"* The colouring in this MS. is very elegant, being mainly restricted to gold, purple, white, and
a little very brilliant vermilion ; — the forms are principally Saxon.

* Described at length by Dr. Waagen, '* Treasures of Art in Great Britain," pages 104 — 106.

26 THE ART OF ILLUMINATING.

accredited reliques of either. It still contains no less than 339 pages, and is one
blaze of illumination from the first page to the last.^ The large initial letters are
quite Saxon in form ; the borders, of which there are endless and beautiful
varieties, are more strictly classic in character than is usual in Caroline manu-
scripts ; and the pictures are in an indeterminate style, between Greek, Latin,
and that original Frankish, which subsequently absorbed in Western Europe all
previous tradition, and grew into the peculiar type of French 12th century work
— the progenitor of the pure Gothic of the 13th.

Ample materials happily exist for tracing the gradual development of this
Frankish element ; at first through the works of the immediate descendants of
Charlemagne, and subsequently through various liturgical works, collected from
suppressed abbeys, and preserved for the most part in the Imperial library at
Paris. Of these, some of the most important are, the Bible of Louis le
Debonnaire, executed in the eighth year of his reign ; ^ the Gospels of the same
monarch ; ^ and the Sacrementaire de Metz,"* — all produced for sons of Charle
magne. The first-named is of the barbaric style, on which Alcuin and others
improved ; the second contains some very curious symbolic initial letters ; and the
third, a good deal of originality, both in ornaments and figures.

The principal volumes still preserved, once belonging to the grandsons of
Charlemagne, appear less original in several respects, than do those executed for
his sons. Thus, in the case of Louis le Debonnaire's eldest son Lothaire, whose
Gospels,^ written and decorated at the Abbey of St. Martin, at Tours, exhibit a
mixed Latin and Saxon style, with but little specifically Frankish work, — and thus
also in the person of Lothaire's youngest brother, Charles the Bald, whose two
celebrated Bibles, the one known as the Bible of St. Denis, and the other as that
presented to the monarch by Count Vivien, abbot of the same monastery at which
the Gospels of Lothaire were executed, — illustrate a similar composite, but scarcely
original, style. The former manuscript is illuminated with intertwined lacertine
monsters, knotwork, single (but not the three-whorl) spirals, and rows of red dots
following many of the leading outfines, all of which may be regarded as distinc-
tive features of the Hiberno-Saxon school ; while the latter, with several of the
above peculiarities freely introduced, combines an unmistakable classicality, shown
in the various figure-subjects, and especially in the arcading which encloses the
Eusebian Canons at the commencement of the volume.*^

We can feel but little surprise at the production of such works at the Abbey
of St. Martin, at Tours, for it was within the walls of that " Paradise," as Alcuin
calls it, that the Saxon sage gave all the latter years of his life to the recension

* Many illustrations, but unfortunately without colour, are given by D'Agincourt, "Pittura,"
plates 40 to 45 inclusive.

2 See 9th Century, PI, 14, figs, i, 2, 3, 4, $, 6.
^ See 9tli Century, PI. 15.

* See 9th Century, PI. 16, figs, i, 2, 3, 5.

5 See 9th Century, PI. 15; and 9th Century, PI. 17, fig. 7.

® The specimens engraved on PI. 20, loth Century, from the fragments of a Bible illuminated
for Charles the Bald, and presented in the British Museum (Harl. 7551), are completely Saxon in
general form and style.

THE ART OF ILLUMINATING. 27

of the Holy Scriptures/ and to the organization of a '' scriptorium " worthy of
his affectionate patron.

The impulse given to the Art of Illumination in that celebrated establishment
was speedily communicated to rival scriptoria in other localities; thus from tlie
abbeys of St. Martial, at Limoges, from Metz, Mans, St. Majour in Provence,
Rheims, St. Germain and St. Denis at Paris, issued, from the age of Charlemagne
to the 13th century, an almost uninterrupted series of highly-illuminated volumes,
many of which still remain to attest the vigorous efforts by which the foreign
elements were gradually thrown aside in France, to make way for that expressive
and original outline style,^ which achieved its greatest power in the early part of
the 13th century. The throes and struggles by which this was achieved, are
singularly well shown by a page engraved in Count Bastard's splendid work from
the "Apocalypse of St. Sever," written during the first half of the nth century.
The page presents a curious emblematical frontispiece, the general form of which
is perfectly Oriental ; the border ornaments are founded on Cufic inscriptions ;
the animals which decorate the Arabian framework are classical ; and the inter-
lacing fretwork of several portions of the design is purely Saxon.

Many Byzantine features were brought into French illumination through the
schools at St. Martial's and the other abbeys of Limoges, but it was at Paris
itself that the greatest changes and improvements were effected ; thus, at St.
Gemiain and St. Denis were produced, during the first half and middle of the
nth century, two volumes, still existing in the Imperial Library of France, which
distinctly show the germination of " Gothic." The St. Germain " Mysteries of
the Life of Christ" is illustrated by many original and very spirited outline
compositions, some of which are slightly coloured ; while the " Missal of St.
Denis," of a few years later, displays that peculiar grace and naivete in the action
and expression of the figures, together with that soft elegance in foliated ornament,
which for several centuries remained a dominant excellence in the best French
illuminations.

As classical tradition and Hiberno-Saxon intricacies died out in France to
make way for the true Mediaeval styles, so did they, although somewhat more
slowly, in England, Germany, Spain, and the Netherlands. In Italy, a degeneracy

' The folio Vulgate (B. M. Adcll. M.SS. No. 10,546) purchased by the British Museum
authorities from M. Speyer Passavant, of Basle, in 1836, for ^750, was considered by its late
possessor to have been the original transcript "diligently emended" by Alcuin himself, for
presentation to Charlemagne on his coronation as Emperor of Rome, in the year 800. It is a very
fine and interesting volume, but has been referred by more recent authorities to the reign of Charles
the Bald. Mr, Westvvood, however, considers that *Mt appears to have better claims than any of
the several Caroline Bibles now in existence, to be considered as the volume so presented. " Its chief
rival is the great Bible of the Fathers of Sta. Maria, in Vallicella, at Rome. Sir Frederick Madden
has entered into a minute analysis of the claims of the Speyer Passavant volume, in a series of most
leamed articles in the "Gentleman's Magazine" for 1836. See also West wood's " Paloeographia
Sacra," and the pamphlet, by its late possessor, J. H. de Speyer Passavant, " Description de la
Bible ecrite par Alchuine, &c." Par. 1829, pp. 112.

' It is singular, considering how generally Hiberno-Saxon ornament was adopted by continental
illuminators, that the peculiar ^zxoxv fiuttering outline never obtained a footing.

28 THE ART OF ILLUMINATIN'G.

occurred, from which the revival at length, under Cimabue and Giotto, was as
rapid and brilliant as the previous collapse appears to have been fatal.^

Alike from any such complete change, complete degeneracy, or ultimate
attainment of life and perfection, the genuine Greek style of the Byzantine empire
was exempted. That Oriental splendour of gold and colour by which, so early as
the days of Justinian the Great, it sought to gloss over the feebleness of its
reminiscences of classical beauty, remained the unchanged leading characteristic of
its illuminations down to the final extinction of the empire in 1453.

In such an Essay as the present, it is quite impossible to convey any idea of
the minute, but extremely interesting, varieties of type adopted in Byzantine
manuscripts ; it must suffice to state, in general terms, — that the dispersion of
many of the most skilful Greek artists, by the iconoclastic emperors (commencing
with Leo the Isaurian, a.d. 726), gave a great impetus to the arts of design in those
countries in which they took refuge, and no doubt contributed specially to the
improvements effected under Charlemagne, — that on the abandonment of such
religious persecutions, in the middle of the 9th century, a fresh start appears to
have been taken,'^ — and that from the date of that revival, which may be specially
noted under the reign of Basil the Macedonian, until about the year 1200, many
very noble and dignified pictures ^ were executed. From the last-named era, until
the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, although the treatment of figure-subjects
became more and more v/eak and mannered, much beautiful ornament was painted

' The learned and most eloquent author of the " Poesie Chretienne," M, Rio (from whom it
was my privilege, while yet a youthful student, to receive many a valuable lesson), in noting this
" total eclipse," remarks that " two rolls of parchment, one of which is preserved in the library of
the Barbarini Palace, the other in the sacristy of the Cathedral of Pisa, are ornamented with
miniatures which may serve to give us an idea of the state into which the arts of design had fallen
in Italy in the nth century. Those which were executed rather later, in the manuscript of a poem
on the Countess Matilda (written by a certain 'Donizo,' in 1125), which is preserved in the YaticaU)
display no ti-ace either of chiaroscuro or of coi'rect imitation of form.

"The Romano-Christian school ceased from this time to exist, after having fulfilled the whole
of its mission, which had been to form the connecting link between the primitive inspirations of
Cliristian art and the new schools which were destined to reap the harvest of this rich inheritance,
and turn it to good account.

*' As for the Germano-Christian school, it may be compared to a vigorous shoot severed from a
dying trunk, to revive and flourish in a better soil."

^ The *' Menologion " of the Vatican, a magnificent volume, containing no less than 430
miniatures of remarkable interest and excellence, is the standing illustration of this assertion. The
work was engraved and published at Urbino, in three folio volumes, in 1 727, under the auspices of
three pontiffs, Clement XI., Innocent XIII., and Benedict XIII.

^ It would be difficult to find in the production of the best Roman age anything nobler than
several of the compositions in the Paris "Psalter," with commentaries (Imperial Library, Gr.
No. 139), a Greek manuscript of the loth century. One of the finest of the figures contained in it,
that of "Night," I caused to be enlarged, and painted on the exterior of the Byzantine Court at
Sydenham, as giving a more favourable impression of Greek art than any other pictorial repre-
sentation I could meet with. A replica of this subject occurs in the Vatican " Prophecies of
Isaiah." The two may be compared from the works of D'Agincourt and Sere. Most noteworthy
also among the best of this class of Byzantine manuscripts, are the Paris "Commentaries of
Gregory Nazianzen," the British Museum Psalter (Egerton, No. 1,139) of early 12th century work,
and the Bodleian " Codex Ebnerianus."

J

THE ART OF ILLUAflNATIiVG. 29

upoft gold grounds, and the influence originally communicated to Arabian art from
the Eastern Empire, was reflected back upon its later productions from the
contemporary schools of Saracenic and Moorish decoration.-^ It is scarcely
necessary to remark, that in all these inflexions of style the Russian, Syrian, and
Armenian illuminators closely followed the example set them by the Byzantine
scribes and painters.

Returning from the East to the extreme west of Europe, it is worthy of note
how entirely the primitive Saxon styles, which wrought so important an influence
upon the rest of Europe, were lost in the country from which they had been mainly
promulgated. The successive social and political changes wrought by the
ascendancy of the Danes, and ultimately of the Normans, put an almost total
stop to Saxon illumination ; and so complete was the abandonment of the Saxon
character, that Ingulphus, in describing the fire which destroyed the noble library
of his abbey at Croyland, in the year 109 1, after dwelling on the splendour of the
" chirographs written in the Roman character, adorned with golden crosses and
most beautiful paintings," and especially " the privileges of the kings of Mercia,
the most ancient and the best, in like manner beautifully executed with golden
illuminations, but written in the Saxon character," goes on to state : " All our
documents of this kind, greater and less, were about four hundred in number ; and
in one moment of a most dismal night, they were destroyed and lost to us by this
lamentable misfortune. A itw years before, I had taken from our archives a good
many chirographs, written in the Saxon character, because we had duplicates, and
in some cases triplicates, of them ; and had given them to our Cantor, Master
Fulmar, to be kept in the cloister, to help the juniors to learn the Saxon character,
because that letter had for a long while been despised and neglected by reason of
the Normans,^ and was now known only to a few of the more aged ; that so the
younger ones, being instructed to read this character, might be more competent
to use the documents of their monastery against their adversaries in their old
age."

The Normans, a warlike but unlettered race, did but little for the first century
after the Conquest, to restore the taste for learning which they and the Danes
had displaced. While English progress in illumination was thus comparatively
paralyzed, in France and Germany new styles, corresponding with those known in
architecture as Romanesque, rapidly sprang into popularity. The plates in this
work, nth Century, Pis. 25 and 26,^ show the combination, with reminiscences of
Carlovingian knotted ends to the initial letters, of foliated ornament, such as in th-e

' Of this ornamental style the most remarka1)le specimens are the Vatican "Acts of the
Apostles," and a 1)eautiful volume in the library of the Duke of Hamilton, From the former, I
have given some facsimiles in " The Geometrical Mosaics of the Middle Ages" (plate 20), in order
to show the similarity of design between the gold ground mosaics of the Greeks and early Italians,
and the embellishments of the illuminated manuscripts of the former, .

- Ingulphus was at that very time indel)tcd directly to the Confpieror, his early patron, for
his alibacy,

^ From the Harleian MS. No. 7iS^. .

30 THE ART OF ILLUMINATING.

subsequent plates, 12th Century, Pis. 30,^ 31,'^ 32,=^ 2>Z^ 34, may be found developed,
in Germany especially, into a fresh, luxuriant, and complete system. The
complicated conventionality of foliage shown in these specimens, and greatly
encouraged by the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, a.d. 1152 to 1190, was never
entirely abandoned by the Germans in their ornament ; and at the end of the
13th and early part of the 14th centuries, when France and England were
successfully imitating nature, the Teutonic races clung to a peculiarly crabbed
style of crinkled fohation, which they reluctantly abandoned only in the
17 th century.

With the accession of the Plantagenets, in 1154, and especially through the
marriage of Heniy II. with Eleanor of Guienne, French influence acquired a
marked predominance in English illumination ; and for about one hundred years
from that date, the progress of style in England and France was parallel and almost
identical. Gradually, in each, the Romanesque features disappeared, and by the
middle of the 13th century, the fulness of mediaeval illumination, as reflecting the
perfection of Gothic architecture, was attained. The rapid growth of the Dominican
and Franciscan orders during the first half of the centurj^, and their eagerness to
dispel the drowsiness into which the old well-to-do monastic establishments were fast
slipping, gave a new life to all arts, including, of course, that of the transcrij^tion
and illumination of the sources of learning, and, in those days, consequently, of
power.

The present appears to be the most fitting place for a few notes, derived chiefly
from the " Consuetudines " of the regulars,"* on the general mediaeval practice in rela-
tion to monastic libraries, of which England, France, Germany, and Italy possessed
many during the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries, rich, not only in sacred and
patristic, but in profane literature as well.

The libraries of such establishments were placed by the abbot under the sole
charge of the "armarian," an ofticer who was made responsible for the preservation
of the volumes under his care : he was expected frequently to examine them, lest
damp or insects should injure them ; he was to cover them with wooden covers to
preserve them, and carefully to mend and restore any damage which time or
accident might cause ; he was to make a note of any book borrowed from the
library, with the name of the borrower ; but this rule applied only to the less
valuable portion of it, as the "great and precious books" could only be lent by the
permission of the abbot himself. It was also the duty of the amiarian to have all
the books in his charge marked with their correct titles, and to keep a perfect list
of the whole. Some of these catalogues are still in existence, and are curious and
interesting, as showing the state of literature in the Middle Ages, as well as giving
us the names of many authors whose works have never reached us. In perusing
these catalogues, it is impossible not to be struck by the assiduous collection of

* PI. 30, from Harleian, 2800. Considered by Sir Frederick Madden to have been written in
the diocese of Treves, about 1190.

^ Pis. 31, 33, 34, from Harleian, 3045. A German manuscript, written by Hrabinua de Crucli.

^ PI. 32, from the Royal Library B. M., No. i, C. vii. Also German.

'' See Martene Const. Canon. Reg. in " De Ant. Eccl. Ritibus," tom. iii. for full detailsi

THE ART OF ILLUMINATING, 31

classical authors, whose works sometimes equal, and at others actually preponderate
over, the books of scholastic divinity. It was also the duty of the armarian, under
the orders of his superior, to provide the transcribers of manuscripts with the writings
which they were to copy, as well as with all the materials necessary for their labours ;
to make bargains as to payment, and to superintend the works during their progi"ess.
These books were not always destined for the library of the monastery in which
they were transcribed, but were often eagerly bought by others, or by some generous
layman, for the purpose of presenting to a monastic library; and their sale,
particularly at an early period, added largely to the revenues of the establishment
in which they were written or illuminated.

The different branches of the transcribing trade were occasionally united in the
same person, but were more generally divided and practised separately, and by
secular as well as by religious copyists. Of the former, there were at least three
distinct branches — the illuminators, the notarii, and the librarii antiquarii. The last-
mentioned were employed chiefly in restoring and repairing old and defaced
manuscripts and their bindings. The public scribes were employed chiefly by
monks and lawyers, sometimes working at their own houses ; and at others, when
any valuable work was to be copied, in that of their employer, where they were
lodged and boarded during the time of their engagement.

A large room, as has been already stated, was in most monasteries set apart for
such labours, and here the general transcribers pursued their avocation ; but there
were also, in addition, small rooms or cells, known also as scriptoria, which were
occupied by such monks as were considered, from their piety and learning, to be
entitled to the indulgence,^ and used by them for their private devotions, as well as
for the purpose of transcribing works for the use of the church or library. The
scriptoria were frequently enriched by donations and bequests from those who knew
the value of the works carried on in them, and large estates were often devoted to
their support. The tithes of Wythessy and Impitor, two shillings and twopence, —
and some land in Ely, with two parts of the tithes of the lordship of Pampesward,
were granted by Bishop Nigellus to the scriptorium of the monastery of Ely, the
charter of which still exists in the church there. A Norman named Robert gave to
the scriptorium of St. Alban's the tithes of Redburn, and two parts of the tithes of
Hatfield ; and that of St. Edmondesbury was endowed with two mills, by the same
person.* —

' This Indulgence was, after all, not very luxurious, for as Mr. Maitland remarks ("Dark Ages,"
2nd edition, p. 406):^'* Many a scribe has, I dare say, felt what Lewis, a monk of Wcssobrun, in
Bavaria, records as his own experience during his sedentary and protracted labours. In an inscrip-
tion appended to a copy of Jerome's Commentary on Daniel, among other grounds on which he
claims the sympathy and the prayers of the reader, he says, —

' ' ' Dum scripsit friguit, et quod cum lumine solis
Scribere non potuit, perfecit lumine noctis.'"
For whilst he wrote he froze, and that which by daylight he could not
Bring to perfection, he worked at again by the aid of the moonlight.
' Ample information as to the libraries of the Middle Ages may be found by the English
student in Fosbroke's "Encyclopaedia of Antiquities," and "British Monachism," in Maitland's
"Dark Ages," and (most agreeably and learnedly conveyed) in Merry weather's " Bibliomania in

32 THE ART OF ILLUMINATING.

During the whole of the 12th and 13th centuries the pen played a more
distinguished part than the brush in the art of illumination ; since, not only was the
former almost exclusively employed in outHning both foliage and figures, but the
use of the latter was generally limited to filling up, and heightening with timid
shadowing, the various parts defined by the former, and which were altogether
dependent upon it for expression.^ In fact, it appears as if the principal patterns
in 13th century illumination had been designed by stained-glass painters, the black
outlines being equivalent in artistic result to the lead lines which, in the best
specimens of grisaille and mosaic windows, keep the forms and colours distinct and
perfect. This firm dark outlining was retained in England later than in France,
and was combined in the former country with a more solid and somewhat less gay
tone of colour than ever prevailed in the latter.

So late as the 15 th centuiy, this correspondence between stained glass work
and illumination still obtained ; thus, as Mr. Scharf remarks, in a note to his
interesting paper on the King's College, Cambridge, windows, in the Transactions
of the Archaeological Institute for 1855, "The forty windows of the monasteiy of
Horschau contained a series of subjects minutely corresponding to those of the
Biblia Pauperum," &c.

The initial letters which in Romanesque illumination had expanded into very
large proportions (12th Century, Pis. 32 and 34), as a general rule,^ diminished ;
but, in compensation, effloresced, as it were, into floreated temiinations, which were
at last not only carried down the side of the page, but even made to extend right
across both the top and bottom of it. During the reigns of the three first Edwards
in England, the tail, as it might be called, of the initial letter, running down the
side of the i)age, gradually widened, until at length it grew into a band of ornament,
occasionally panelled, and with small subjects introduced into the panels. In such
cases, the initial letter occupying the angle formed by the side and top ornaments
of the page, became subsidiary to the bracket-shaped bordering, which, in earlier
examples, had been decidedly subsidiary to the initial letter. Thus PI. 30, 12th
Century, in figs, i, 2, 3, 4, 5, show progressive and transitional examples of the
extension of the initial letter into the elongated bracket-shape. The succeeding
plates 13th Century, Pis. 40 and 41, and the Frontispiece, furnish beautiful
specimens of the floreated and panelled bracket ornaments, combined with the
flourished and stretched-out initial letters. PI. 49, 14th Century, fig. i, shows the
gradual encircling of the page with ornament derived from the initial letter ; while
PI. 76, 15th Century, at length, displays the bordering completely surrounding the
text or miniature. In this example the capital, although ovenvhelmed by the
border, is still connected with it. In the following, PI. 77, 15th Century, in one
instance the initial letter cuts on, but does not connect with, the bordering ; and in
another it is altogether detached from it. Lastly, in Pis. 80 and 81, 15 th Centur}',

the Middle Ages." From these works and from Martene the preceding notes on the subject have
been mainly condensed.

» Sec 1 2th Century, Pis.. 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, and 13th, Pis. 38, 39, 40, 41, 42.

^ In Italy the propensity for large letters was never relinquished. See 14th Century, Pis. 50,
54, 58, 60, and 15 th, Pis. 68, 73, 82, 6cc.

THE ART OF ILLUMINATING. 33

vre meet with the bordering surrounding the text or miniature completely, and
irrespective of the lettering of the manuscript.

From the 12th century onwards, important illuminated manuscripts exist to the
present-day in such profusion as to deter me from individualizing in this necessarily
brief essay. I shall rather dwell upon general characteristics of style, and upon the
influence of the leading patrons of the art, in its palmiest days in England, France,
Germany, and the Netherlands. In these countries the infinite activity of the
mendicant friars kept up a steady demand for manuscripts of all kinds : thus
Richard de Bury, bishop of Durham, the greatest bibliophile of his age, and the
tutor when prince, and friend while sovereign, of Edward III., relates, that in all
his book-hunting travels : " Whenever we happened to turn aside to the towns and
places where the aforesaid paupers had convents, we were not slack in visiting their
chests and other repositories of books ; for there, amidst the deepest poverty, we
found the most exalted riches treasured up ; there, in their satchels and baskets, we
discovered not only the crumbs that fell from the master's table for the little dogs,
but, indeed, the shew-bread without leaven, — the bread of angels, containing in
itself all that is delectable."

These mendicant friars were looked upon with great jealousy by the clergy, who
attributed to them the decrease in the number of students in the universities. Fitz
Ralph, archbishop of Armagh and chaplain to Richard de Bury, accuses them of
doing " grete damage to learning : " curiously enough, his accusation, contained in
an oration denouncing them, bears testimony to their love of books and to their
industry in collecting them. " For these orders of beggers, for endeles wynnynges
that thei geteth by beggyng of the foreside pryvyleges of schriftes and sepultures
and othere, thei beth now so multiplyed in conventes and in persons. That many
men tellith that in general studies unnethe, is it founde to sillynge a pfitable book
of ye faculte of art, of dyvynyte, of lawe canon, of phisik, other of lawe civil, but alle
bookes beth y bougt of freres, so that en ech convent of freres is a noble librarye and
a grete, and so that ene sech frere that hath state in schole, siche as thei beth nowe,
hath an hughe librarye. And also y sent of my sugettes to schole thre other foure
persons, and hit is said me that some of them beth come home agen for thei myst
nought finde to selle ovn goode Bible ; nother othere couenable books." Richard
de Bury's example gave a stimulus to those who succeeded him, both at Durham
and elsewhere.

That illumination was excessively popular in England during the 14th century
among the leading families, is proved by the numbers of coats of arms emblazoned
in many of the most remarkable English manuscripts. Thus in the Salisbury
Lectionary, in the Douce, in Queen Mary's, and in the Braybrooke Psalters, appear
the ancient coats of some of the best blood in the country. A most interesting
contemporary illustration of the precise terms upon which these noble patrons
employed the best illuminators of the day, has been furnished me by a kind and
learned antiquarian friend,^ in the shape of an extract from the fabric rolls of " York
Minster,"'' of which the following is a translation : —

' W. H. Blaauw, Esq.
- ' Edited by James Raine, Jun,, for the Surtees Society. 8vo. Durham, 1859*

D

34 THE ART OF ILLUMINATING.

"August 26th, 1346. — There appeared Robert Brekeling, scribe, and swore that
he would observe the contract made between him and Sir John Forbor, viz., that
he the said Robert would write one Psalter with the Kalender for the work of the
said Sir John for ^s. and 6^. ; and in the same Psalter, in the same character, a
Placebo and a Dirige, with a Hymnal and Collectary, for 4s. and 3^. And the said
Robert will illuminate (' luminabit ') all the Psalms with great gilded letters, laid in
with colours ; and all the large letters of the Hymnal and Collectary will he
illuminate with gold and vermiHon, except the great letters of double feasts, which
shall be as the large gilt letters are in the Psalter. And all the letters at the
commencement of the verses shall be illuminated with good azure and vermilion ;
and all the letters at the beginning of the Noctunis shall be great uncial (unciales)
letters, containing V. lines, but the Beatus Vir and Dixit Dominus shall contain
VI. or VII. lines ; and for the aforesaid illumination and for colours he [John] will
give 5^". 6^., and for gold he will give 18^., and 2s, for a cloak and fur trimming.
Item in one wardrobe — one coverlet, one sheet, and one pillow."^

Under such contracts, and on much more extravagant terms, were no doubt
produced the finest of those " specimens of English miniature painting " of the
Edwardian period, which Dr. Waagen considers " excel those of all other
nations of the time, with the exception of the Italian, and are not inferior even
to these."^

There is probably no document in existence which better illustrates the nature,
cost, and classification of illuminated and other manuscripts during the 14th and
15th centuries, than the catalogue of the library founded by William of Wykeham,
himself one of the greatest English patrons of literature, at the College of
St. Mary, near Winchester. This catalogue has been printed in extmso in
the " Archaeological Journal " (vol. xv. pp. 69 to 74), with notes by the

* The same series of rolls contain many very interesting entries; as for instance, —

"1393 A.D. Soluti — de 4/. 6j. %d. sol. hoc anno fratri Willelmo Ellerker pro scriptura
duorum gradalium pro choro. de 40^-. solutis domino Ricardo de Styrton pro eluminacione
dictonim duorum gradalium— de 22s, 'j^d. solutis dicto Willelmo pro pergameno empto per ipsum
Willelmum.

" A.D, 1395. Roberto Bukebinder pro ligatura unius magni gradalis pro choro ex convencione
facta loj. Eidem pro IIII. pellibus pergameni pro eadem custodiendo 2od. Eidem pro I. pelle
cervi pro coopertura dicti libri '^s, 2d. Fratri Willelmo Ellerker pro pergameno 4$-. Domino
Ricardo de Styrton in plenam solucionem alu7)ipnyng tryum gradalium, 40^-. de 3J-. 0^. solutis
domino Johanni Brignale pro VIII, pellibus pergameni emptis pro niagno gradali predict©, "

" Domino Ricardo de Styrton pro alumpnacione magni gradalis novi in choro, 20s.

'* A.D. 1402. In expensis in ahunpnacione magni gradalis in choro per dominum Ricardum de
Stretton, 20J-."

Throughout these accounts, and others too lengthy to note, it will be noticed that the value of
the parchment, gold, colours, and current expenses, falls not very far short of the total cost of the
labour of the illuminator.

^ "Treasures of Art in Great Britain," vol. i. p. 160. The same distingitished critic, who has
made a special study of the ihuminated MSS, of Europe, and especially of the French (see his
" Kunstwerken und Kiinstlern in Paris"), in describing some of the pictures in Queen Mary's
Psalter (unquestionably English), obsei-ves (p. 166), " Upon the whole, I am acquainted with
no miniatures, either Netherlandish, German, or French, of this time" (the 14th century) "which
can compare m artistic value with the pictures executed by the best hand in this manuscript. "

THE ART OF ILLUMINATING. 35

Rev. W. H. Gunner. It is essentially a catalogue raiso7ine^ divided into the
following classes, which give a good idea of the staple commodities in mediaeval
and monastic libraries : —

"Ordinalia, Antiphonaria, Portiphoria, Legendae, CoUectaria, Graduales,
Manualia, Processionalia, Gradales, Pontificales et Epistolares, Libri Theologise,
Doctores super Bibliam, Libri Sententiarum, Doctores super Sententias, Libri
Historiales, Psalteria Glossata, Libri Augustini, Libri Gregorii, Libri Morales
Diversorum Doctorum [to which in many libraries might, I fear, be added, Libri
Immorales Diversorum Auctorum], Libri Chronici, Libri Philosophise [strange to
say, a total blank in the Winchester Collection], Libri Juris Canonici, Decreta et
Doctores super Decreta, Decretales, Libri Sexti cum Doctoribus, Clementinae,
Summae et alii Tractatus Diversorum Doctorum Juris Canonici, Libri Juris Civilis,
and Libri Grammaticales. "

Most of the volumes in this library were donations from both laity and clergy,
but mainly from the former. The price of every volume is given. The founder
himself presented one Missal valued at ;;^20, and John Yve, ''formerly a fellow of
this College, bequeathed a great Portiphoriam for laying before the senior fellow
standing on the right hand of the upper stall," valued at an equal amount. The
York contract, previously quoted, shows precisely how much illumination could be
obtained for much less than one pound ; and we may therefore form from it a
tolerable idea of the magnificence of volumes upon the production of which such
large sums were expended. The student will find this catalogue well repay his
careful examination.

During the last half of the 14th century and the beginning of the 15th, the art
of illumination received a great impulse in France, from the magnificent patronage
bestowed upon it by Jean, Due de Berri, brother of Charles V. Of his unique
library, which excited the envy of all the princes of his time, and stimulated
especially Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, and the great Duke of Bedford, to
enter into competition with him, many magnificent specimens still remain —
such as his Psalter, his two Prayer-books, and his copy of the "Merveilles du
Monde."^

French illumination attained perfection in these works, and in some few
specimens of the more decidedly Renaissance period, such as the unsurpassed
"Hours of Anne of Brittany," executed about the year 1500 : all of these are
models for the study of the illuminator of the 19th century, since, in them gaiety
and charm of ornament will be found united to a style of miniature-painting of
real excellence in art. In the MSS. of the period of Jean de Berri, we meet with
the perfection of that lace-like foliation known as the Ivy pattern — one that
attained an extraordinary popularity in France, England, and the Netherlands.
An early specimen of this ornament may be found in PI. 49, 14th Century, and a
completely developed one in Pis. 76 and 77, 15th Century.

* It is to be regretted that Count Bastard failed to complete more than thirty-two plates
of the splendid work he announced under the title of *' Librairie de Jean de France, Dug
de Berri, frere de Charles V., public en son entier pour la premiere fois." Paris, 1834. Fol.
max. &c.

D 2

36 THE ART OF ILLUMINATI^fG.

Ill the illuminations of both France and England, during the 14th and first half
of the 15th centuries, the apjilication of raised and highly-burnished gold became a
leading feature, and reached its highest pitch of perfection. When used, as it
frequently was, as a ground for miniature subjects and ornaments, it v,-as frequently
diapered in the most brilliant and delicate manner. This diapered background
gave way at length to an architectural, and, ultimately, under the influence of the
Italian school and that of the Van Eycks, to a landscape one.

It may be well now to advert to those styles of illumination which, through the
Flemings settled in this country, greatly affected English art ; and which, through
the House of Burgundy, equally powerfully wrought upon the French styles, not so
much of ornament, as of miniature-painting. As M. Hippolyte Fortoul ^ justly
remarks, " The powerful school established at Bruges by the Van Eycks, at the
close of the 14th century, exercised an immense influence on all the schools of
Europe, not excepting those of Italy ; " — an influence which was, indeed, not
altogether dissimilar from that brought to bear upon mannerism in Art by the Pre-
Raflaelitism of the present day. The foundations of the Netherlandish school were
sufficiently remote, but may be satisfactorily traced through existing miniatures and
paintings. Herr Heinrich Otte, in his " Handbuch der Kirchlichen Kunst-
Archaologie" (p. 187), gives a chronological hst of the principal MSS. of Germanic
production from the Carlovingian period to the commencement of the 13th
century. Up to that period the Byzantine manner prevailed, mixed with a peculiar
rudeness, such as may be recognized in the works of the great saint and bishop,
Bernward of Hildesheim, whom Fiorillo and other writers look upon, with Willigis of
Mainz, as the great animator of German art in the nth century.^ The conversion
of this latter element into Gothic originality appears to have taken place during
the 13th century, and a fine manuscript in the British Museum (B. R 2, b. 11),
ascribed by Dr. Waagen to a period between 1240 and 1260, illustrates the
transition.^

With the commencement of the 14th century appear the " Lay of the
Minnesingers," one of the most peculiar of the Paris manuscripts, and others
cited by Dr. Kugler, which carry on the evidence of progressive development until
the power of expression obtained in painting by Meisters Wilhelm and Stephen of
Cologne, is reflected in the contemporary miniatures.

Even did not the celebrated " Paris Breviary," and the British Museum
" Bedford Missal," both executed in part by the three Van Eycks, Hubert, Jan,
and Margaretha, for the great Regent of France, exist, the style of the panel-
pictures painted by them would be quite sufficient to show that they must have
been illuminators before they became world-renowned oil-painters. Through their

' "De I'Art en Allemagne," tome ii. page 153. Paris, 1842.

"^ See casts from his bronze doors and columns in the Crystal Palace, and his Three Gospels in
the treasury of 'the Cathedral at Hildesheim. In Dr. F. H. Miiller's " Beitrage zur tcutschen
Kunst und Geschichtskunde," very careful engravings of the plastic art of Bei-nward and Willigis
may be compared with facsimiles of contemporary German illumination.

' The steps of the transition are also Avell indicated, and illustrated by reference to special MSS.
in Kugler's " Kunstgeschichte, " in his article on the "Nord., vornehnil. Deutsche Malerei der
Roman. Periode."

THE ART OF ILLUMTNATIKG. 37

conscientious study of nature, both in landscape and in por:rait subjects, a
complete change was wrought in the miniatures of all manuscripts produced
after their influence had had time to penetrate into the scriptoria and atehers of the
contemporary artist-scribes. Had not the invention of printing rapidly supervened,
there can be no doubt that even more extraordinary results than followed the
general appreciation of their graces as illuminators would have been ensured.
The later manuscripts of the German and Netherlandish schools of miniature-
painting generally reflect the mixed cleverness and angularities of such masters as
Rogier van der Weyde the elder, Lucas van Leyden, Martin Schongauer, &c. ;
where, however, the manner of Hemling prevailed, spiritual beauty and refine-
ment followed.

To dwell upon Spanish illuminated manuscripts would be comparatively
profitless to the practical student ; for all the peculiarities and excellences they
would appear to have at any time possessed, may be found more perfectly
developed at first in French, subsequently in Netherlandish, and ultimately in
Italian volumes.^ It remains, therefore, only to sketch, with a brevity altogether
out of proportion to the great interest of the subject, the progress of the art
in Italy.

If the delineation of naive and graceful romantic incident, combined with
elegant foliated ornament, reached perfection in the illuminations of the French
school ; if blazoning on gilded grounds was carried to its most gorgeous pitch in
Oriental and Byzantine manuscripts ; if intricate interlacements and minute
elaboration may be regarded as the special characteristics of Hiberno-Saxon scribes ;
and if a noble tone of solid colour, combined with great humour and intense energy
of expression, marked England's best productions, — it may be safely asserted, that
it was reserved for the Italians to introduce into the embellishment of manuscripts
those higher qualities of art, their peculiar aptitude for which so long gave them a
pre-eminence among contemporaneous schools.

I therefore proceed to trace the names and styles of some few of the most
celebrated among their illuminators ; premising by a reminder to the student of the
miserably low pitch to which art had been reduced in Italy during the 12th
century. Even the most enthusiastic and patriotic writers agree in the all but total
dearth of native talent. Greeks we're employed to. reproduce Byzantine mannerisms
in pictures and mosaics, and to a slight extent no doubt as scribes. Illumination
was scarcely known or recognized as an indigenous art ; for Dante, even writing
after the commencement of the 14th century, speaks of it as "quell' arte, che
Alluminar b chiamata a Parisi."

Probably the earliest Italian manuscript showing signs of real art, is the " Ordo
Ofhciorum Senensis Ecclesiae," preserved in the library of the academy at Sienna,

' The subject is one that I am unable to find has been treated with any great ability. The
reader may, however, be referred to the following old Spanish works on the subject : — Andres
Merino de Jesu-Cristo, " Escuela Palaeographica, 6 de leer Letras universas, antiguas y modernas,
desde la entrada dtf los Godos en Espaiia " (Madrid, 1780, in fol. fig.); — Estev. de Terreros,
** Palceographia Espaiiola, que conticne todos los modos conocidos, que ha habido. de escribir en
Espana, .desde su principio y fundacion " (Madrid, Ibarra, 1758, in 4to. fig.); and Rodriguez-
Christ., "Bibliotheca Universal de h Polygraphia Espanola" (Madrid, 1738, fol. fig.),

38 THE ART OF ILLUMINATING.

and illuminated with little subjects and friezes with animals, by a certain Oderico, a
canon of the cathedral, in the year 12 13.

The Padre della Valle ^ expressly cautions the student against confounding this
Odericus with the Oderigi of Dante,^ who died about the year 1300. The latter
was unquestionably an artist of some merit, for Vasari^ speaks of him as an
*' excellente miniatore," whose works for the Papal library, although '' in gran parte
consumati dal tempo," he had himself seen and admired. Some drawings by the
hand of this "valente uomo," as he is styled, Vasari speaks of possessing in
his own collection.

Baldinucci makes out Oderigi to have been of the Florentine school on no
other grounds than because Vasari describes him as "molto amico di Giotto in
Roma;" and because Dante appears to have known him well. Lanzi,^ however,
more correctly classes him with the Bolognese school, from his teaching Franco
Bolognese at Bologna, and on the strength of the direct testimony of one of the
earliest commentators on Dante — Benvenuto da Imola. This same Franco worked
much for Benedict IX., and far surpassed his master. Vasari especially commends
the spirit with which he drew animals, and mentions a drawing in his own
possession of a lion tearing a tree as of great merit. Thus Oderigi, the con-
temporary of Cimabue, and Franco, the pupil of Oderigi and contemporary of
Giotto, appear to have been to the Art of Illumination what Cimabue and his
pupil Giotto were to the Art of Painting, — the pupil in both cases infinitely excelling
the master. To them succeeded, about the middle of the 14th century, a scarcely
less celebrated pair — Don Jacopo Fiorentino, and Don Silvestro, both monks in
the Camaldolese monastery, " degli Angeli," at Florence. The former, Baldinucci
tells us, " improving, with infinite study, every moment not devoted to his monastic
duties, acquired a style of writing greatly sought after for choral books." The
latter, who was rather an artist than a scribe, enriched the productions of his friend
with miniatures so beautiful, as to cause the books thus jointly produced to excite,
at a later period, the special admiration of Lorenzo the Magnificent, and iiis son,
the no less magnificent Leo X.^ So proud were their brother monks of the skill of

' "Lettere Sanese," torn. i. p. 278.

^ The well-known passage in which Dante alludes to Oderigi occurs in the eleventh canto of the
*' Paradise," and is as follows : —

' * Oh, dissi lui, non se' tu Oderisi,

L' onor d' Agubbio, e 1' onor di quell' arte

Che alluminar e chiamata a Parisi ?

Frate, diss' egli, piu ridon le carte

Che pennelegia Franco Bolognese :

L' onor e tutto or suo, e mio in parte.

Ben non sarei stato si cortese

Mentre ch' io vissi per lo gran disio

Deir excellentia, ove mio cor intese.

Di tal superbia qui si paga il fio. "
3 Vita di Giotto.

^ •* Storia Pittorica," vol. xi. p. 13, ed. Pisa, 1815; and vol. v. pp. 8, 9, 10.
^ Lanzi speaks of these choral books as '' De' piu considerabili che abbia I'ltalia."

THE ART OF ILLUMINATING, 39

Frati Jacopo and Silvestro, that after their death they preserved their two right
hands as honoured reHcs.

About a century later, the leading illuminators were Bartolomeo and Gherardo,
— the former abbot of San Clemente, at Arrezzo/ and the latter a Florentine
painter and " miniatore," whom Vasari confounds with Attavante, a painter,
engraver, and mosaicist. Of all the Italian artists who adopted the style of the
illuminators, if they did not themselves illuminate, the most celebrated certainly
are Fra AngeHco da Fiesole^ and Gentile da Fabriano. The majority of the works
of both are little else than magnified miniatures of the highest merit.

The school of Siennese illumination was scarcely less distinguished than that of
Florence. M. Rio dwells with enthusiasm on the books of the Kaleffi and Leoni,
still preserved in the Archivio delle Riformazioni, and especially on those decorated
by Nicolo di Sozzo, in 1334. The greatest master of the school, Simone Memmi,
the intimate friend of Petrarch, was himself an illuminator of extraordinary
excellence, as may be seen by the celebrated Virgil of the Ambrosian Library
at Milan, which contains, amongst other beautiful miniatures by his hand, the fine
portrait of Virgil, and a vtxy remarkable allegorical figure of Poetry, quite equal
in artistic merit to any of the artist's larger and better-known works in fresco
or tempera.''

It is, however, in the library of the cathedral at Sienna, which retains many of
the magnificent choir-books executed by Fra Benedetto da Matera, a Benedictine
of Monte Cassino, and Fra Gabriele Mattel of Sienna, that the greatest triumphs
of the school are still to be recognized. This series of volumes, although much
reduced from its original extent by the abstractions made by Cardinal Burgos, who
carried off a vast quantity to Spain, is still the finest belonging to any capitular
establishment in Italy, and worthily represents the grandeur of Italian illumination
in " cinque cento " days.

In various plates of this work, and more particularly in Pis. 48, 50, 51, 53, 54,
58, 59, 60, 14th Centuiy, and Pis. 68, 74, and 82, 15th Century, specimens are
engraved, which, although affording no illustration of the beauty of the miniatures
by which such volumes were adorned, may still serve to convey a good idea of the
scale of boldness and splendour upon which the initial letters and ornaments of
Italian choral books were generally conceived and executed.

The series of similar volumes next in importance to those of Sienna, is attached
to the choir of the church and monastic establishment of the Benedictines at
Perugia, known as '' San Tomaso de' Casinensi." Of these, nothing more need be
said than that they are worthy of the stalls of the same choir, the design of which
is attributed to RafFaelle, and the execution to Stefano da Bergamo, and Fra
Damiano, of the same town, the great " intarsiatore."

Formerly, as M. Rio observes,^ " Ferrara could boast of possessing a series of

• The Kensington Museum possesses two splendid leaves from a great "Chorale," which
contain miniatures completely in the manner of Fra Angelico.

' The style, if not the hand, of Taddeo Bartolo, another of the great early masters of the
Siennese school, may be distinctly traced in several existing miniatures.

' ** Poetry of Christian Art," p. 140.

40 THE ART OF ILLUMINATIMC.

miniatures, executed principally in the seclusion of its convents, from the time of
the Benedictine monk Serrati, who in 1240 ornamented the books of the choir
with figures of a most noble character,^ till that of Fra Girolamo Fiorino, who,
towards the beginning of the 15 th century, devoted himself to the same occupation
in the monastery of San Bartolomeo, and formed in his young disciple Cosme a
successor who was destined to surpass his master, and to carry this branch of art
to a degree of perfection till then unknown. Even at the present day we may see,
in the twenty-three volumes presented by the Bishop Bartolomeo della Rovere to
the cathedral, and in the twenty-eight enormous volumes removed from the Certosa
to the public library, how much reason the Ferrarese have to be proud of the
possession of such treasures, and to place them by the side of the manuscripts of
Tasso and Ariosto.

The " subjects generally treated by these mystical artists were marvellously
adapted to their special vocation : they were the life of the holy Virgin, the
principal festivals celebrated by the Church, or popular objects of devotion ; in
short, all the dogmas which were susceptible of this mode of representation, works
of mercy, the different sacraments, the imposing ceremonies of religion, and, in
general, all that was most poetical in liturgy or legend. In compositions of so
exclusive a character, naturaHsm could only be introduced in subordination to the
religious element."

While this was the case with the majority of illuminations executed under the
auspices of the Church, in those of a secular nature, undertaken for the great
princes and nobles, another set of characteristics prevailed. For the Gonzagas,
Sforzas, D'Estes, Medici, Strozzi, Visconti, and other great families, the best artists
were constantly employed in decorating both written and printed volumes, in which
portraiture is freely introduced, and picturesque and historical subjects are
represented with great vivacity and attention to costume and local truth. Thus
in the truly exquisite " Grant of Lands," by Ludovico il Moro to his wife Beatrice
D'Este, dated January 28th, 1494, and preserved in the British Museum, speaking
portraits of both Ludovico and Beatrice are introduced, with their arms and
beautiful arabesques.^ Again, in the Hanrot " Sforziada," the first page contains
exquisite miniatures of three members of the princely family of the Sforzas, by the
hand of the all-accomplished Girolamo dai Libri.^ This artist, a truly celebrated
Veronese and worthy fellow-townsman, with the almost equally able Fra Liberale,
whose work in the manner of Giovanni Bellini excited the utmost envy on the part

• " Orno i libri corali di figure nobillissime. " — Cittadella, "Catalogo dei Pittori e Scultori
Ferraresi," vol. i. pp. i — 27.

^ A small volume, which passed from the hands of the late Mr. Dennistoun into the collection of
Lord Ashburnham, contains a series of arabesques and miniatures of the most interesting character,
recalling in different pages, and in the highest perfection, the varied styles of Pietro Perugino, Pin-
turicchio, Lo Spagna, and others. The Duke of Plamilton's library is extraordinarily rich in Italian
MSS. ; his Grace's Dante with outline illustrations being of great importance.

^ SeeMx. Shaw's truly beautiful reproduction, in that gentleman's "Illuminated Ornaments,"
&c. , of a portion of Arabesque border from this volume, containing a medallion portrait, Plate
XXXV. A very beautiful Sforza MS. has lately been transferred from the possession of Mr. Henry
Farrer to that of the Marquis D' Azeglio.

THE ART OF ILLUMIiVATING. 41

of the Siennese illuminators, was himself the son of a miniature painter, known as
Francesco dai Libri, and bequeathed the name and art of his father to his own
son, — thus maintaining the traditions of good design acquired in the great school
of Padua, under Andrea Mantegna ^ and Squarcione, during three generations of
illuminators. Girolamo was by far the most celebrated of the three. As a painter,
his works possess distinguished merit, and there still remain good samples of his
abilities in the churches of San Zeno and Sant' Anastasia, at Verona. He also
derives some credit from the transcendent merits of his pupil Giulio Clovio.
Vasari's description of the talents of Girolamo ^ gives so lively a picture of the style
which reached its highest vogue at the end of the 15 th, and during the first half of
the 1 6th centuries in Italy, that I am tempted to translate it. " Girolamo," he says,
" executed flowers so naturally and beautifully, and with so much care, as to appear
real to the beholder. In like manner he imitated little cameos and other precious
stones and jewels cut in intaglio, so that nothing like them, or so minute, was ever
seen. Among his smallest figures, such as he represented on gems or cameos,
some might be observed no larger than little ants, and yet in all of them might be
made out every limb and muscle, in a manner which to be believed must needs
be seen."

Mr. Ottley supposes that GiuHo Clovio (born 1498, died 1578) worked previous
to his receipt of the instruction of Girolamo in a drier manner^ in which no evidence
appears of that imitation of Michael Angelesque pose in his figures, which in his
subsequent manner became so leading a characteristic of his style. It is in his
earlier manner that Giulio is believed to have illuminated for Clement VII.^ (1523
— 1534), while for his successor, Paul III. (1534 — 1539), he worked abundantly,
and gradually acquired that which is best known as his later manner, in which he
continued to labour, according to Vasari, until 1578, at the great age of eighty
years. Mr. Ottley, however, recognizes his hand in MSS. which must have been
at least five years later — during the Pontificate of Gregory XIII.'*

It is obviously impossible, in such an essay as the present, to dwell in detail
upon the merits of so accomplished a master of his art. Fortunately we possess
in this metropolis two fine specimens of his skill, both tolerably accessible — one in
the Soane," and the other in the British Museum." A third, in the shape of an

' That Andrea exercised a great influence upon miniature-painting may be recognized in the
works of Girolamo : a grand leaf from a folio, on which is painted a seated allegorical figure of
*• Rome," in the possession of Mr, T, Whitehead, is so noble in every way, and so entirely in
Andrea's manner, that it seems almost impossible to doubt its being by his hand. It may,
however, possibly have been executed by his contemporary in the Mantuan school, ' ' Giovanni
del Russi," who in 1455 illuminated the great Bible of the house of Este, for Borso, Duke of
Modena.

^ ** Vita di Fra Giocondo e di Liberale, e d' altri Veronesi,"

^ The Celotti sale, which took place at Christie's on the 26th of May, 1825, and which included
by far the most important collection of Italian illuminations ever brought to the hammer, contained
no less than nineteen beautiful specimens extracted from the choral books of that pope.

* See Baglioni, ** Vite dei Pittori ed Architetti fioriti in Roma, dal 1572 sino al 1642," — Vita di
Giulio Clovio.

* Facsimiles of the exquisite pages of this volume are given in Mr, Noel Humphrey's vv^ork ; they
are perfect triumphs of chromo-lithographic skill, and their production by Mr. Owen Jones formed

4Z THF^ ART OF JLLUMJNA TING,

altar-card, attributed to him, is to be found in the Kensington Museum ; and several
fragments, formerly in Mr. Rogers's possession, have passed to Mr. Whitehead and
to the British Museum. All of these exhibit a refinement of execution, combined
with a brilliancy of colour and excellence of drawing, which has never been sur-
passed by any illuminator. Vasari gives a complete list and description of his prin-
cipal works, and proves him to have been not less industrious than able.

A contemporary of Giulio's, whose name has been overpowered by the greater
brilliancy of that of the Cellini of illumination, was a certain Apollonius of Capra-
nica, or, as he signs himself, " Apollonius de Bonfratellis de Capranica, Capellae et
Sacristiae Apostolicae Miniator." Mr. Ottley most justly states,^ " that it is impos-
sible to speak in too high terms of the beauty of his borders, wherein he often in-
troduces compartments with small figures, representing subjects of the New Testa-
ment, which are touched with infinite delicacy and spirit." His drawing, which is
of a decidedly Michael-Angelesque character, is of less merit when the nude is re-
presented on a larger scale. His harmony of colour is extraordinary, rather lower
in tone than Giuho Clovio's, but equally glowing, and more powerful. Some beau-
tiful specimens of his handicraft remain in the possession of Mr. T. M. Whitehead.
The late Mr. Rogers possessed many fragments, the most precious of which have
found their way into the National Collection. His work is* usually dated, and the
dates appear to range from 1558 to 1572. Apollonius having been official illumi-
nator to the very institution from which Celotti derived his richest spoils, it may
readily be imagined that his collection included an unprecedented series of beau-
tiful examples of Buonfratelli'a style.

Long after the invention of printing, the Apostolic Chamber retained its official
illuminators ; and among them one of the most noteworthy is unquestionably the
artist who signs his works, "Ant. Maria Antonotius Auximas " — a native of Osimo,
and a protege of the princely house of the Barberini and its magnificent head.
Urban VIH. (1623 — 1644). He was a pupil of Pietro da Cortona, and an artist
of great skill and refinement.'

For still more recent popes artists of great excellence continued to be employed,
including for Alexander VH. the celebrated Magdalena Corvina, who worked from
1655 to 1657 ; and for Innocent XI. (1676 to 1689) a German, who signs his pro-
ductions " Joann, frid-Heribach." As the popes retained their illuminators for the
decoration of precious documents, so did the doges of Venice ; and probably the
most magnificent of all illumination, executed after the general spread of printed
books had checked, although not extinguished the art, may be found in the precious
" Ducales," wrought indeed by several of the greatest Venetian painters.'

I need scarcely remind the reader, that the earliest woodcut and printed books

what Germans may hereafter call a **standpunkt" in the history of that art, of which this volume
presents no unfavourable sample. ^ Grenville Collection.

* In his catalogue of the sale of the Celotti collection.

^ The Kensington Museum possesses the beautiful original by this artist, formerly in Mr. Ottley's
collection, from a portion of which Plate XI. in Mr. Shaw's ** Illuminated Ornaments" has been
engraved.

^ Mr. Whitehead's small but choice collection of specimens includes one quite worthy of the
hand of Tintoretto.

THE ART 01^ ILLUMINATING, 43

were made to imitate manuscripts so closely as to deceive the inexperienced eye.
" Artes moriendi," " Specula," " Biblise Pauperum," and '' Donatuses," — the prin-
cipal types of block books/ — represent illuminated manuscripts in popular demand
at the date of the introduction into Europe of Xylographic Art. Spaces were
frequently left, both in the block books and in the earliest books printed "svith
movable type, for the illumination, by hand, of initial letters, so as to carry the
illusion as far as possible. This practice was abandoned as soon as the learned
discovered the means by which such wonderfully cheap apparent transcripts of
voluminous works could be brought into the market ; and the old decorated initial
and ornamental letters were reproduced from type and wood blocks. The Mainz
Psalter of 1457, and other books printed by Fust and Schoeffer, required only the
addition of a little colour, here and there, to delude any inexperienced eye into
the belief that they were really hand-worked throughout. In Pis. 89 and 90, i6th
Century, some pretty specimens are given from a Bible printed at Wittenberg in
1584, and in PL 92 of the same century, from a Bible printed at Frankfurt am
Mayn in 1560. Such imitations were but poor substitutes for the originals in point {
of beauty, however excellent when regarded from a utilitarian point of view. Every ';
country has more or less cause to mourn the senseless destruction of many noble /
old volumes which the printing-press never has, and now, alas ! never can replace ;
but none more than England, in which cupidity and intolerance destroyed reck-
lessly and ignorantly. Thus, after the dissolution of monastic establishments, per-
sons were appointed to search out all missals, books of legends, and such " super-
stitious books," and to destroy or sell them for waste paper ; reserving only their
bindings, when, as was frequently the case, they were 'ornamented with massive
gold and silver, curiously chased, and often further enriched with precious stones ;
and so industriously had these men done their work, destroying all books in which
they considered popish tendencies to be shown by the illumination, the use of red \
letters, or of the Cross, or even by the — to them — mysterious diagrams of mathe-
matical works, — that when, some years after, Leland was appointed to examine the
monastic libraries, with a view to the preservation of what was valuable in them,
he found that those who had preceded him had left little to reward his search.
Bale, himself an advocate for the dissolution of monasteries, says : "Never had we
bene offended for the losse of our lybraryes beyng so many in nombre and in so
desolate places for the moste parte, yf the chief monuments and moste notable
workes of our excellent wryters had bene reserved, yf there had bene in every shyre
of Englande but "one solemyne lybrary to the preservacyon of those noble workes,
and preferrements of good learnynges in our posteryte it had bene yet somewhat.
But to destroye all without consyderacyon is and wyll be unto Englande for ever
a most horryble infamy amonge the grave senyours of other nations. A grete j
nombre of them wych purchased of those superstycyose mansyons reserved of those "
lybrarye bokes, some to serve their jaks, some to secure theyr candelstyckes, and

'Mr. S. Leigh Sotheby, in his admirable ** Principia typographica, " Dr. Dibdin in his
** Bibliotheca Spenceriana," and the Baron de Heinecken in his "Idee generale d'une Collection
complete d'Estampes, &c.," give the best literary and graphic ilustrations of the block books of the
Middle Ages.

44 THE ART OF ILLUMINATING,

some to riibbe theyr bootes ; some they solde to the gvossers and sope sellers, and
some they sent over see to the bokebynders, not in small nombre but at tymes
whole shippes ful. I know a merchant man, whyche shall at thys tyme be name-
lesse, that boughte the contents of two noble lybraryes for xl shyllyngs pryce, a
shame it is to be spoken. Thys stuffe hathe he occupyed in the stide of greye
paper for the space of more than these ten years, and yet hathe store ynough for as
manye years to come, A prodyguose example is thys, and to be abhorred of all
men who love theyr natyon as they shoulde do." Wherever the Reformation ex-
tended throughout Europe, a corresponding destruction of ancient illuminated
manuscripts took place, and in localities where fanaticism failed to do its work of
devastation, indifference proved a consuming agent of almost equal energy ; and
indeed there is no more forcible illustration of the untiring zeal and industry of the
illuminators of old, than the fact, that, after all that has been done to stamp out
the sparks still lingering in their embers, their works should still glow with such
shining lights in all the great public libraries of Europe.
I now turn to the second portion of my theme.

PART II.

WHAT THE ART OF ILLUMINATING SHOULD BE IN
THE PRESENT DA Y,

ILLUMINATION, in whatever form practised, can never be properly regarded
as any other than one of the genera into which the art of Poly-chromatic
decoration may be subdivided. What was originally termed illumination, was
simply the application of minium or red lead, as a colour or ink, to decorate, or
draw marked attention to, any particular portion of a piece of writing, the general
text of which was in black ink. The term was retained long after the original red
lead was almost entirely superseded by the more brilliant cinnabar, or vermilion.
As ornaments of all kinds were gradually superadded to the primitive distinctions,
marked in manuscripts by the use of different-coloured inks, the term acquired
a wider significance, and, from classical times to the present, has always been
regarded as including the practice of every description of ornamental or orna-
mented writing.

Because such embellishments were, during the early and Middle Ages, and, in
fact, until long after the invention of printing, almost invariably executed on
vellum, there is no reason whatever why illumination should be applied to that
material, or to paper, which has taken its place, only ; wood, metal, slate, stone,
canvas, plaster, all may be made to receive it. Again : because ancient illumina-
tion was almost entirely executed in colours, in the use of which water and some
glutinous medium were the only "vehicles," there is no reason why modern
illumination should not be worked in oil, turpentine, encaustic, fresco, tempera,
varnish, and by every process in which decorative painting is ever wrought in these
days. It is in such an extension that the most valuable functions of the Art are
likely to consist in all time to come. That utilitarian application which it, originally
and for so many centuries, found in the production of beautiful books, copies of
which could be elaborated by no other means than hand labour, has been, to a
great extent, superseded by chromolithography and chromotypy. No doubt a
wide field for useful, and even productive labour, is still left to the practical
illuminator on paper and vellum, in designing and preparing exquisite originals for
reproduction by those processes, as well as in the rich and tasteful blazoning of
pedigrees, addresses, family records and memorials, and in the illustration for

46 THE ART OF ILLUMINATING.

presentation, or for private libraries, of transcripts from favourite authors ; but, at
the same time, an equally elegant and useful application of the Art would be to
enrich ceilings, walls, cornices, string-courses, panels, labels round doors and
windows, friezes, bands, chimney-pieces, and stained and painted furniture in
churches, school-rooms, dwellings, and public buildings of all kinds, with beautiful
and appropriate inscriptions, of graceful form and harmonious colouring. Such
illumination would form not only an agreeable but an eminently useful decoration.
How many texts and sentences, worthy, in every sense, of being " ™tten in letters
of gold," might not be thus brought prominently under the eyes of youth, man-
hood, and old age, for hope, admonition, and comfort ! No more skill, energy,
and taste are requisite for the production of this class of illumination than are
essential for satisfactory work upon vellum and paper ; and while in the one case
the result of the labour may be made an incessant enjoyment for many, in the
other, it is seldom more than a nine-days' wonder, shut up in a book or portfolio,
and seen so seldom as scarcely to repay the amateur for the expense and trouble
involved in its execution.

In the few remarks I am about to offer in respect to what the Art of Illumina-
tion really should be now, I propose to treat briefly, but specifically, of its appli-
cation to each of the diiferent substances on which it may be most satisfactorily
worked ; in the following series : vellum, paper, tracing-paper, canvas, plaster,
stone, metal, wood. Dealing with design only in this section of my essay, I
propose, in the following and concluding one, to adhere to the same order in
noticing the best processes by which amateurs may carry out the class of work I
would recommend to their notice.

To commence, therefore, with vellum : it is obvious that good copies of ancient
illuminated manuscripts can be made on this material only, for there is a charm
about the colour and texture of well-prepared calf-skin, which no paper can be
made to possess. For the same reason, and on account of its extraordinary
toughness and durability, it is especially suitable for pedigrees, addresses, and other
documents which it may be considered desirable to preserve for future generations.
To transcribe on vellum and decorate the writings of ancient and modern authors
So as to form unique volumes, appears to me — nowadays, when God gives to every
man and woman so much good hard work to do, if they will but do it — little else
than a waste of human life. In days when few could read, and pictures drawn by
hand were the only means within the reach of the priesthood of bringing home to
the minds of the ignorant populace the realities of Biblical history, and of
stimulating the eye of faith by exhibiting to the material eye pictures of those
sufferings and triumphs of saints and martyrs, on which the Church of Rome
during the Middle Ages mainly based its assertions of supremacy, it was all very
well to spend long lives of celibacy and monastic seclusion in such labours ; but
the same justification can never be pleaded again. I am quite ready to admit that
the exceptional manufacture of these pretty picture-books may be not only agree-
able, but even useful ; it is the abuse, and not the occasional resort to the practice,
I would venture to denounce. For instance, a mother could scarcely do a thing
more likely to benefit her children, and to fix the lessons of love or piety she

7'HE ART OF ILLUMINATING. 47

would desire to implant in their memories, than to ilkiminate for them little
volumes, which, from their beauty or value, they might be inclined to treasure
through life. Interesting her children in her work as it grew under her hand, how
many precious associations in after-life might hang about these very books. Again :
for young people, the mere act of transcription, independent of the amount of
thought bestowed upon good words and pure thoughts, and the selection of orna-
ment to appropriately illustrate them, would tend to an identification of the
individual with the best and highest class of sentiments.

All that has been said with respect to illumination on vellum, applies with equal
force to illumination on paper. There has to be borne in mind, however, the
essential difference that exists between the relative durability of the two substances.
Elaboration is decidedly a great element of beauty in illumination ; and neatly-
wrought elaboration cannot be executed without care, patience, and a considerable
sacrifice of time : why, therefore, bestow that care, patience, and time upon a less
permanent material, when one only a trifle more costly, but infinitely more lasting,
is as easily procured % Work on paper, therefore, only as you would write exercises
or do sums upon a slate ; learn and practise upon paper, but reserve all more
serious efforts for vellum only. No effect can be got upon the former material,
which cannot, with a little more dexterity, be attained upon the latter.

As none of the other substances mentioned as those on which illumination may
be executed, are available for making up into books, before proceeding to a con-
sideration of the special conditions under which the Art may be applied to them, I
beg to offer the following recommendations with respect to design, as suitable for
book-illustration generally.^

Firstly : — Take care that your text be perfectly legible ; for, however cramped
and confused the contents of many of those volumes we most admire may now
appear, it is to be remembered that they were all written in the handwriting most
easily read by the students of the periods in which they were written. The old
scribes never committed the solecism of which we are too often guilty, of bestow-

* Our good fortune in possessing at the present time, and in common use, a remarkably dear
and easily intelligible set of alphabets, was thus admirably noted in an article in the Times news-
paper of December 28th, 1859 : —

•'Happily for us, the written symbols employed by the Romans, which are now the chief
medium of expression for all the languages of Europe, America, Australia, and the greater part of
civilized Africa, reflect exactly the rough and stalwart energy which made Rome to Europe what we
are to the world. They have bestowed on us an alphabet as practically efifective, and as suited to
the capabilities of human vision, as any that could have been devised. This alphabet of ours is like
an Englishman's dress— plain and manageable j not very artistically arranged, it may be, nor
remarkable for copiousness or flow of outline, but sufficiently elastic and capable of extension. Its
symbols have certainly no graceful curves like the picturesque Tersian ; but, better than all flourishes,
each letter has plain, unmistakable features of its own. The vowels, which are to the rest of the
alphabet what the breath, or rather life itself, is to the body, are assigned their legitimate position,
and are formed to be written continuously with the consonants. Lastly, though scanty in itself, it
is abundantly equipped with capital letters, stops, italics, and every appliance for securing rapid
legibility, so that the eye can take in the subject of a page at a glance. Oriental alphabets are the
very reverse of all this. They are complex, cumbersome, unmanageable." Much the same might
have been said of many of the medieval ones.

48 THE ART OF ILLUMINATIXG.

ing infinite pains on writing that which, when written, not one in a hundred could,
or can, decipher.

Secondly : —Fix the scale of your writing and ornament with reference to the
size of your page, and adhere to it throughout the volume. This rule, which was
rigidly observed in all the best periods of the Art, is incessantly disregarded in the
present day ; and to such an extent, that not only does scale frequently differ, as
we turn page after page, but the same page will frequently exhibit scroll-work,
derived from some great choral folio, intervvreathed with leafage borrowed from
some pocket missal or book of hours.

Thirdly : — If you adopt any historical style or particular period as a basis on
which your text, miniatures, and ornamentation are to be constructed, maintain its
leading features consistently, so as to avoid letting your work appear as though it
had been begun in the loth century, and only completed in the i6th ; or, as I have
once or twice seen, vice versa. For however erratic changes of style may appear
to be in Art, as they run one another down along the course of time, it will be
invariably found that there exists a harmony between all contemporary features,
which cannot be successfully disregarded ; and this it is which has ever rendered
eclecticism in art a problem, — not impossible, perhaps, to solve, but one which, as
yet at least, has never met with a satisfactory practical solution.

Fourthly : — Sustain your energies evenly throughout your volume ; for, re-
member, your critics will estimate your powers, not by your best page, but by a
mean struck between your best and your worst. Book illumination is generally
looked upon as microscopic work, demanding the greatest exactitude \ and what-
ever merits any page may display, they will go for little, if that page is disfigured
by a crooked line, or a single leaf insufficiently or incorrectly shadowed : and the
greater the merit, the more notable the drawback.

Fifthly : — Rigidly avoid contrasting natural with conventional foliage. Adopt
which you like, for by either beautiful effects may be produced ; but mix them,
and the charm of both is gone. Natural foliage may be successfully combined
with any other varieties of conventional ornaments, excepting those based upon
natural foliage.

Sixthly : — Take care that some at least of your dominant lines and borders are
kept parallel to the rectangular sides of your pages ; for unless your flowing and
wayAvard ornaments are corrected by this soberer contrast, they will, however
beautiful in themselves, have a straggling and untidy appearance in the volume.
Where the lines of the text are strongly marked, as in black ink on a white ground,
and the page is so far filled with text as to leave but little space for ornament, this
rule may be, to a great extent, disregarded, for the lines of the text will themselves
supply the requisite contrast to the flowing forms ; but where the page is nearly
filled with ornament, or when the text is faint only, as in gold lettering on a white
ground, it becomes imperative.

Seventhly : — Be decided, but temperate, in your contrasts of colour. It would
obviously exceed the limits of these notes to attempt in them to enter upon the
principles of the "harmony of colour ;" they must be studied from treatises speci-
ally devoted to the subject. Such study must, however, be accompanied by con-

THE ART OF ILLUMINATING. 49

stant experiment and practice ; for it would be as foolish to expect a man to be a
good performer upon any instrument, because he had learnt the theory of music,
as it would be to suppose that he must necessarily paint in harmonious colouring,
because he had studied the theory of balance in combination. To the experienced
eye and hand, functions become intuitive, which, to the mere theorist, however pro-
found, are toil and weariness of spirit.

Such are a few of the rules, by attention to which, the illuminators of old
achieved some of their happiest effects, and which can never be safely disregarded
by those who would emulate their efforts.

In taking up the class of substances on which illumination, as applied to general
decoration, may be best executed, we meet, firstly, with one occupying a somewhat
intermediate position, viz., tracing-paper. I term its position intermediate, be-
cause it may be v/rought upon in either oil or water-colour -, and because, when so
wrought upon, it may be either mounted on paper or card, and so made to contri-
bute to book or picture enrichment ; or attached to walls or other surfaces, brought
forward in oil-colours, and be so enlisted in a general system of mural illumination.
How this may best be done technically will be hereafter described ; here I may
notice only the use which may be made of this convenient material, by many not
sufficiently advanced in design or drawing, to be able to invent or even copy cor-
rectly by free-hand, and yet desirous of embellishing some particular surface with
decorative illumination. For instance, let it be desired to fill a panel of any given
dimension with an illuminated inscription. Take a sheet of tracing-paper the exact
size, double it up in both directions, and the creases will give the vertical and hori-
zontal guide-lines for keeping the writing square and even : then set out the num-
ber of lines and spaces requisite for the inscription, fixing upon certain initial letters
or alphabets for reproduction, from this work, or any other of a similar kind, and
making the height of the lines correspond therewith. Then lay the tracing over,
and trace with pen, pencil, or brush, each letter in succession, taking care to get
each letter into its proper place, in reference to the whole panel, to the letter last
traced, and to the other letters remaining to be traced. When this is completed, .
trace on whatever ornaments may best fill up the open spaces and harmonize with
the style of lettering. When the tracing is completed, with a steady hand pick in
all the ground-tint, keeping it as even as possible ; and heighten the letters or orna-
ments in any way that may be requisite to make them correspond with the models
from which they may have been taken. By adopting this method of working, with
care and neatness of hand, very agreeable results may be obtained, without its being
indispensable for the illuminator to be a skilful draughtsman. The tracing-paper
may be ultimately attached to its proper place, and finished off, as will be hereafter
recommended ; and, if cleverly managed, it will be impossible to detect that that
material has ever been employed.

The special convenience of illuminating upon canvas is, that instead of the
operator having to work either from a ladder or scaffold, or on a vertical or hori-
zontal surface, he may do all that is necessary at an easel or on a table on terra
firma. His work when completed may be cut out of the sheet of canvas on which
it has been painted, and may be fastened to the wall, ceiling, or piece of furniture

so THE ART OF ILLUMINATING.

for the decoration of which it may have been intended. All that is essential, with
respect to the designs which may be wrought upon it, is, to take care that they
are fitted for the situations they may be ultimately intended to occupy. Thus it
must be obvious that it would be an entire waste of time to elaborate designs des-
tined to be fixed many yards from the eye, as minutely as those which would be in
immediate proximity to it. No branch of designing illuminated or other ornament
requires greater experience to succeed in than the adjustment of the size of parts
and patterns to the precise conditions of light, distance, foreshortening, &c., under
which they are most likely to be viewed.

Illumination on plaster may be executed either in distemper, if the walls or
Ceiling have been coloured only, or in oil, if they have been brought forward in oil-
colours. The former is the most rapid, but least durable process. Hence decora-
tion is usually applied in oil to walls which are liable to be rubbed and brushed
against, and in distemper to ceilings, which are, comparatively speaking, out of
harm's way. Very pretty decorations on plaster may be executed by combining
haftd-worked illumination with diapered or other paper-hangings. Thus, for in-
stance, taking one side of a room, say about eleven feet high, to the under-side of
the plaster cornice, niark off about a foot in depth on the wall from the bottom of
the cornice, set out the width of the wall into three or more panels, dividing the
panels by upright pilasters of the same width as the depth of the top border. At
the height of about four feet from the ground mark off the top edge of another
horizontal band, which make also one foot deep ; continue on the lines of the pilas-
ters to within six inches of the top of the skirting, and draw in a horizontal border,
six inches high, running all round uj:)on the top edge of the skirting ; then paint, in
a plain colour, a margin, three or four inches wide, all round the panels formed by
the bands and pilasters, and let the paperhanger fill in the panels with any pretty
diapered paper which may agree with the style and colour in which you may desire
to work your illumination. The side of your room will then present two horizontal
lines — one next the cornice, and one at about dado-height, suitable for the recep-
tion of illuminated inscriptions. In setting these out, care must be taken to bring
a capital letter into a line with the centre of each pilaster, so that a foliated orna-
ment, descending from the upper inscription, and ascending from the lower one,
may meet and intertwine on the pilasters, forming panelled compartments for the
introduction of subjects, if thought desirable.^

It is by no means necessary for the sides of these pilasters, or the bounding
lines of the bands containing inscriptions, to be kept straight ; they may be varied
at pleasure, so long as they are kept symmetrical in corresponding parts, and uni-
formly filled up with foliation emanating from, or connected with, the illuminated
letters. Agreeable results may be produced by variations of such arrangements
as the one suggested. Frequently round doors, windows, fireplaces, &c., inscrip-
tions may be executed with very good effect, either on label-scrolls or simple bor-
ders, and with greater or less briUiancy of colour, according to the circumstances
of the case. Often simplicity and quiet have greater charms than glitter or brib
liancy ; thus black and red, on a light-coloured ground, the most primitive combina-
• For excellent examples, see Pis. 40 and 41, 13th Century; and 15th Century, PI. 81.

THE AR7' OF ILLUMINATING. 51

tion in the history of writing, is ahvays sure to produce an agreeable impression :
blue, crimson, or marone on gold, or vice versa, are no less safe : black, white, and
gold, counterchanged, can hardly go wrong. But it is scarcely necessary to dwell
upon these details, as the plates in this volume furnish admirable tests by which the
student may at once recognize the effects produced by almost any combination of
form and colour he may feel desirous to introduce.

Few amateurs will be likely to attempt illuminations upon plaster ceilings,
owing to the great difficulty they will experience in working overhead with a steady
hand. They will generally do wisely — to execute the principal portions on paper,
tracing-paper, or canvas — to fasten them up, as will be hereafter directed,— and to
confine the decoration actually painted on the ceiling, to a few panels, lines, or
plain bands of colour, which may be readily executed by any clever house-painter
or grainer, even if altogether ignorant of drawing and the art of design. The most
beautiful illuminated ceiling of mediaeval times, I believe to be that of the cele-
brated Jacques Coeur's house, at Bourges, in France. It is vaulted, and each com-
partment contains inscribed labels held by floating angels. The white draperies of
the angels are relieved on a delicate blue ground only, so that the stronger contrast
of the black writing on the white labels gives a marked predominance to the in-
scriptions ; which, being arranged symmetrically, produce in combination agreeable
geometrical figures.

Most of the preceding remarks apply equally to stone ; but in reference to that
material, there is one point to specially enforce, — namely, the advisability of not
covering the whole of the surface with paint. There is about all stone a peculiar
granulation, and in many varieties a slight silicious sparkle, which it is always
well to preserve as far as possible. Illuminate, by all means, inscriptions, panels,
friezes, &c., colour occasionally the hollows of mouldings, and gild salient members
sufficiently to carry the colour about the monument, whether it may be a font, a
pulpit, a tomb, a reredos, a staircase, a screen, or a doorway, and prevent the
highly-illuminated portion from looking spotty and unsupported ; but by no means
apply paint all over. It is not necessary to produce a good effect ; it destroys the
surface and appearance of the stone, making it of no more worth than if it were
plaster, and it clogs up all the fine arrises and angles of the moulded work or
carving. Wherever stained glass is inserted in stonework, the application of illumi-
nation, or at any rate of coloured diaper-work of an analogous nature, is almost an
imperative necessity, in order to balance the appearance of chill and poverty given
to the stonework by its contrast with the brilliant translucent tints of the painted
glass. In illuminating stonework, it seldom answers to attempt to apply decora-
tion executed on paper or canvas ; it should in all cases (excepting when it is at a
great distance from the eye) be done upon the stone itself. The only exception is
the one to which I shall allude in speaking of metal.

Slate, although from its portability and non-liability to change its shape under
variations of temperature, a convenient material for filling panels, and forming
slabs for attachment to walls, is not to be recommended to the amateur, owing to
the difficulty he will experience in effecting a good and safe adhesion between his
pignlents and the surface of the slate. In what is called enamelled slate, an exceP

E 2

52 THE ART OF ILLUMINATING.

lent attachment is secured by gradually and repeatedly raising the slate to a high
temperature ; but the process would be far too troublesome and expensive for prac-
tice by the great majority of amateurs.

Metal in thin sheets is liable only to the objection from which slate is free, —
namely, that it is difficult to keep its surface from undulation in changes of temper-
ature. In all other respects, both zinc, copper, lead, and iron, bind well with any
oleaginous vehicle, and offer the great convenience that they may be cut out to any
desired shape, and attached to any other kind of material by nails, screws, or even
by strong cements, such as marine glue. Zinc is, perhaps, the best of all, as it cuts
more readily than copper or iron, and keeps its shape better than lead ; care should,
however, be always taken to hang it from such points as shall allow it to freely
contract and expand. If this is not attended to, its surface will never remain flat.
It is a material particularly well adapted for cutting out into labels to surmount
door and window arches, or to fill the arcading of churches and chapels, and to be
illuminated with texts or other inscriptions. Very beautiful effects may be pro-
duced by combining illumination with the polished brass-work which is now so
admirably manufactured by Messrs. Hardman, Hart, and others. Care should,
however, be taken not to overdo any objects of this nature. Let the main lines of
construction always remain unpainted, so that there may be no question as to the
substance in which the article is made, and restrict the application of coloured
ornament or lettering to panels, and, generally speaking, to the least salient forms.
Of course, where it can be afforded, enamelling offers the most legitimate mode of
illuminating metal-work ; and ere long it is to be hoped that the beautiful series of
processes by means of which so much durable beauty of colour was conferred on
mediaeval metal-work may be restored to their proper position in British Industry,
and popularized as they should, and, I believe, might readily be.

To woodwork, illumination may be made a most fitting embellishment ; and
the apphcation of a very little art will speedily be found to raise the varnished deal
cabinet or bookcase far above the majority of our standard " institutions " in the
way of heavy and expensive mahogany ones, in interest at least, if not in money
value. Almost every article of furniture may thus be made, as it were, to speak
and sympathize \ for the return every decorated object makes to the decorator is
always in direct proportion to the amount of Hfe and thought he has put into his
work.

It is a common saying that "what comes from the heart goes to the heart;"
and in nothing does it hold good more than in the production of works of art of
all kinds, including Illumination, which, through its specially dealing with written
characters, has so direct an access to the intellect and affections.

In all appeals the decorative artist can make to the brain through the eye, he
has open to him two distinct channels of communication in making out the scheme
of his ornamentation, — the one by employing conventional forms, — and the other
by introducing representations of natural objects. In the former, he usually eschews
light, shade, and accidental effects altogether ; and in the latter, he aims at repro-
ducing the aspect of the object he depicts as nearly as possible as it appears to
him. Both modes have found favour in the eyes of the great illuminators of old.

THE ART OF ILLUMINATING. 53

and by the best they have been frequently and successfully blended.^ Under the
"conventional" series may be classed all productions dependent on either an
Oriental or Hiberno-Saxon origin ; among the " natural," the later, Netherlandish,
Italian, and French illuminations may be grouped ; and in a mixed style, the
majority of the best book-decorations of the medireval period.

To be enabled to recognize intuitively how to blend or contrast, to adopt or
avoid, these different modes of treatment of ornament, is given to but few, and is
revealed to those few only, after years of study and of practice. Rules may
assist,^ but can never suffice to communicate the power \ work of the most arduous
kind, and persistent observation, can alone bestow it. Still, with good models
upon which to base his variations, and goodwill, the amateur may do much, and
will probably best succeed by recurring incessantly to Nature, and combining direct
or nearly direct, imitation of Nature with geometrical lines and masses of colour
symmetrically disposed. To aid his footsteps in this direction, I know no more
convenient councillor than Mr. Llewellyn Jewitt, whose historical introduction to
his brother's " Manual of Illuminated and Missal Painting," published by Mr.
Barnard, of Oxford Street, contains some just remarks upon the subject.^

• For striking ilhistrations of conventional ornament, see PI. 2, 6th Century ; Pis. 4 and 5, 7th
Century; Pis. 8, 9, and 10, 8th Century; Pis. 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, and 19, 9th Century ; Pis. 21
and 22, loth Century; Pis. 25, 26, and 27, nth Century; PI. 30, 12th Century, and succeeding
numbers, frequently following the natural system of growth in foliation pretty closely. For the
mixed styles, most of the plates of the 13th, 14th, and 15th Centuries may be studied; while for
the uafum/ style, the i6th Century affords capital models in Plates 87, 88, 94, and 95.

' The best are contained in the writings of De Quincy, Owen Jones, Winkellman, Pugin, and
Sir Charles Eastlake.

' A'^ especially pp. 24 to 28 inclusive, from which I transcribe a few elegant and suggestive passages.

** The student should keep," says Mr. Jewitt, *' both in form and colour as near to Nature as
possible. No fantastic design can be so elegant as one copied and studied from Nature. What,
for instance, can be more beautiful or more appropriate for intertwining with rich scroll-work than
the convolvulus, the maurandia, the woodbine, the tropeolum, or the passion-flower ? These,
painted upon a rich groundwork of diapered gold, or upon one of the beautiful grounds of the 15th
century, composed of gold and blue or green, in fine waved or winding lines, crossing each other in
every conceivable direction, form truly elegant studies for almost all varieties of ornamentation.
Whenever birds, insects, «S:c., are introduced, they should, as a general rule, be drawn true to
nature ; but they may, nevertheless, be turned and twisted into almost any position or shape. For
instance, a lizard, with its beautiful emerald-green back, its yellow underparts, and rich brown
mottlings, might be introduced with its long tail wrapped and twisted round the stem of a plant,
and its little head, with brilliant eyes, shown just peeping out from under one of the beautiful
flowers. The lady-bird, with its bright red wings, covered with small black spots, might also be
well introduced, creeping upon a leaf or stem. Hairy caterpillars, ants, beetles, snails, glow-worms,
and even spiders, form also beautiful additions to a design, and may be introduced in almost any
form or shape. Butterflies and moths, in their endless and beautiful variety, with their wings of
every conceivable colour and shade, and of the most exquisite forms, are truly amongst the most
beautiful and appropriate objects which the student can have for his mind to dwell upon. But not
only these, — for occasionally a squirrel might be introduced, perched upon the scroll-work ; a cat,
a goat, a dog, a monkey peeping out from behind a leaf ; or indeed any animal, if artistically and
naturally treated, may be introduced with really good effect. Flowers, fruits, shells, corn, &c., all
add their beauties to a design ; and, indeed, there is nothing in nature, no, not one object, but
v/hich may well be introduced into ornamental designing, ^nd may be so translated and poeticised
as to become appropriate to any subject."

54 THE ART OF ILLUMINATING.

Having thus rapidly touched upon the series of materials upon which the Art
may be brought to bear, and the leading principles of design suitable under
different circumstances, I proceed to suggest the class of *' legends," as the mediaeval
decorators called them, likely to prove most fitting for special situations. No
doubt many more apt and piquant may suggest themselves to some practical illu-
minators than the few I have culled (with the assistance of one or two kind friends),
principally from old English writers ; but to others, those I now present may not
be without, at any rate, a convenient suggestiveness. Something similar to the
following I would recommend for the embellishment of ceilings, friezes, string-
courses, or flat walls of the different apartments indicated. Of some I have given
four lines — one, say, for each side of a room ; of others but a line, such as might
go over a door. Between the two are many suitable for panels or irregular
situations ; and in one or two cases passages of many lines have been chosen, fit
for illumination on vellum or paper, and for framing to hang up in the apartments
specified, or to be inserted in panels of furniture or on screens.

FOR DRAWING-ROOMS.

For trouble in earth take no melancholy;

Be rich in patience, if thou in goods be poor.
Who lives merry, he lives mightily ;

Without gladness avails no treasiire."

Since earthly joy abideth never,
Work for the joy that lestis ever j
For other joy is all in vain ;
All earthly joy returns in pain,"

Who shuts his hand hath lost his gold
Who opens it, hath it twice told."

(Wm. Dunbar.)

{Idem.]

(George Herbert.)

•* No bliss so great but cometh to an end;
No hap so hard but may in time amend."

(Robert Southwell.)

"Freedom all solace to man gives;
He lives at ease, that freely lives."

(John Barbour.)

*' That which is not good, is not delicious
To a well-governed and wise appetite."

(Milton.)

FOR A STUDIO.

Order is Nature's beauty, and the way
To order is by rules that Art hath found."

(GWILLIM.j

THE ART OF ILLUMINATING, 55

FOR A FAMILY PORTRAIT-GALLERY OR HALL.

*' Boast not the titles of your ancestors,
Brave youths : they're their possessions, none of yours.
When your own virtues equall'd have their names,
'Twill be but fair to lean upon their fames.
For they are strong supporters ; but till then
The greatest are but growing gentlemen."

(Ben Jonson.)

FOR BREAKFAST OR DINING-ROOMS.

"A good digestion tumeth all to health."

(Wordsworth.)

" If anythmg be set to a wrong taste,
'Tis not the meat there, but the mouth's displeased.
Remove but that sick palate, all is well."

(Ben Jonson.)

"Nature's with little pleased, enough's a feast;
A sober life but a small charge requires;
But man, the author of his own unrest,
The more he has, the more he still requires."

** To bread or drink, to flesh or fish,

Yet welcome is the best dish."

(John Heywood.)

"It is the fair acceptance. Sir, creates
The entertainment perfect, not the cates."

(Ben Jonson, Epigrams, ci.)

" No simple word
That shall be utter'd at our mirthful board,

Shall make us sad next morning."

{Ibid.)

" To spur beyond
Its wiser will the jaded appetite,
Is this for pleasure ? Learn a juster taste,
And know that temperance is true luxury."

(Armstrong, Art of Preseiving Health, book ii.)

" What an excellent thing did God bestow on man,
When He did give him a good stomach ! "

(Beaumont and Fletcher.)

"The stomach is the mainspring of our system. If it be not sufficiently wound up to
warm the heart and support the circulation, we can neither

Think with precision,
Sleep with tranquillity,
Walk with vigour.
Or sit down with comfort."

(Dr. Kitchener.)

"Is't a time to talk
When we should be munching ? "
(Justice Greedy, in Massinger's Nav Way to Pay Old Debts.)

56 THE ART OF ILLUMINATING,

" The destiny of Nations has often depended upon the digestion of a Prime Minister."

(Dr. Kitchener.)

" No roofs of gold o'er riotous tables shining,

Whole days and sums devoured with endless dining."

(Crashaw's Religious House.)

" Now good digestion wait on appetite,
And health on both."

(Shakspere.)

" When you doubt, abstain."

(Zoroaster. )

" Where there is no peace, there is no feast."

(Clarendon.)

** Not meat, but cheefulness, makes the feast."

''Who carves, is kind to two; who talks, to all."

(George Herbert.)

FOR KITCHENS.

A feast must be without a fault ;
And if 'tis not all right, 'tis nought."

(King's Art of Cookery.)

Good-nature will some failings overlook,
Forgive mischance, not errors of the cook."

{Ibid.)

FOR SUPPER-ROOMS.
Oppress not nature sinking down to rest
With feasts too late, too solid, or too full."

(Armstrong, Art of Preserving Health.)

** As men
Do walk a mile, women should talk an hour
After supper : 'tis their exercise."

(Ben Jonson, Philaster, act 2, sc. 4.)

FOR STILL-ROOMS.
'* The nature of flowers Dame Physic doth show ;
She teaches them all to be known to a few."

(TussER, Five Hundred Points of good Husbandry.)
'* The knowledge of stilling is one pretty feat,
The waters be wholesome, the charges not great."

[Id ibid.)

FOR A STOREROOM.

He that keeps nor crust nor crumb,
W^ary of all, he shall want some."

(Shakspere.)

THE ART OF ILLUMINATING. 57

FOR MUSIC-ROOMS.

'* Music removeth care, sadness ejects,
Declineth anger, persuades clemency ;
Doth sweeten mirth, and heighten piety,
And is to a body, often ill inclined,
No less a sovereign cure than to the mind."

(Ben JOiNsoN.)

" Here will we sit, and let the sounds of music
Creep in our ears."

(SiiAKSPERE, Merchant 0/ Vance.)
" Play on and give me surfeit."

{3:d.)

FOR SMOKING-ROOMS.

"Tobacco's a physician,

Good both for sound and sickly ;
'Tis a hot perfume,
That expels cold rheum,
And makes it flow down quickly."

(Rarten Holliday.)
*'' Tobacco hie ! Tobacco hie !
If you are well, 'twill make you sick ;
Tobacco hie ! Tobacco hie !
'Twill make you well, if you are sick."

FOR DRINKING-ROOMS.

" Backe and syde goo bare goo bare,
Bothe hande and fote goo colde ;
But belly, God sende the gode ale inoughe,
Whether hyt be newe or olde."

(Bp. Still, in Gammer Gurtoii's Needle.)
" The first draught serveth for health,
The second for pleasure.
The third for shame.
The fourth for madness."

" The greatness that v/ould make us grave
Is but an empty thing ;
What more than mirth would mortals have ;
The cheerful man's a king."

(Isaac Bickerstaff.)

FOR PUBLIC COFFEE-ROOMS,
<* Eveiy creature was decreed

Tq aid each other's mutual need."

(Gay,)

S8 THE ART OF ILLUMINATING,

*' If you your lips would keep from slips,
Five things observe with care :
Of whom you speak, to whom you speak,
And how, and when, and where."

FOR BILLIARD-ROOMS.

" The love of gaming is the worst of ills ;
With ceaseless storms the blacken'd soul it fills.
Inveighs at Heaven, neglects the ties of blood.
Destroys the power and will of doing good ;
Kills health, poisons honour, plunges in disgrace."

(Young, a^h Satire.)

" Play not for gain, but sport : who plays for more
Than he can lose with pleasure, stakes his heart.
Perhaps his wife too, and whom she hath bore."

(Geo. Herbert, The Church Porch.

FOR BEDROOMS.

Rise with the lark, and with the lark to bed ;
The breath of night 's destnictive to the hue
Of every flower that blows.
* * * Oh, there is a charm

Which morning has, that gives the brow of age
A smack of youth, and makes the life of youth
Shed perfume exquisite. Expect it not.
Ye who till noon upon a down bed lie,
Indulging feverous sleep,"

(HURDIS, Village Curate.) ^

"Watch and ward,
And stand on your guard. "

(IzAAK Walton.)

** Sleep is Nature's second course."

UPON A LOOKING-GLASS.

Since as you know, you cannot see yourself

So well as by reflection, I your glass

Will modestly discover to yourself

That of yourself which you yet know not of."

(Shakspere.)

FOR LADIES' BOUDOIRS.

Birth, beauty, -wealth, are nothing worth alone.
All these I would for good additions take :
'Tis the mind's beauty keeps the others sweet."

(Sir Thomas Overbury, The Wife.

THE ART OF ILLUMINATING, 59

" 'Tis beauty that cloth oft make women proud ;
'Tis virtue that doth make them most admired j
'Tis modesty that makes them seem divine."

(Shakspere.)

FOR A DRESSING-ROOM.
"The apparel oft proclaims the man."

FOR SCHOOLROOMS,

" Extend generosity, it is profuseness ;
Confine economy, it is avarice ;
Unbridle courage, it is rashness ;
Indulge sensibility, it is weakness."

" Catch Time by the forelock j he's bald behind.''

" Nothing is truly good that may be excell'd."

{Motto of King Arthur's Table.)

He may do what he will that will but do what he may."

(Arthur Warwick.)

** God dwelleth near about us,
Ever within,
Working the goodness,
Consuming the sin."

(FuLKE Greville, Lord Brooke, born 1554.)

FOR LIBRARIES, STUDIES, AND BOOK-ROOMS.

** Reading furnishes the mind only with materials of knowledge : it is thinking makes what we
read ours. We are of the ruminating kind, and it is not enough to cram ourselves with a great
load of collections : unless we chew them over again, they will not give us strength or nourishment."

(Locke.)

" Crafty men contemn studies ; simple men admire them j and wise men use them."

(Bacon. )

** Read not to contradict and refute, nor to believe and take for granted, nor to find talk and
discourse, but to weigh and consider." {Idetn.)

"Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and
digested : that is, some books are to be read only in parts ; others to be read, but not curiously ;
and some few to be read wholly, and with diligence and attention." {Idem.)

"In reading, we hold converse with the wise; in the business of life, generally with the
foolish." (Idem.)

"That place that does
Contain my books, the best companions, is
To me a glorious court, where hourly I
Converse with the old sages and philosophers. "

(J. Fletcher.)

6o THE ART OF ILLUMTNATING.

*' Bookes are a part of man's prerogative,

In formal inke they thoughts and voyces hold,
That we to them our solitude may give.

And make time present travel that of old.
Our life fame peceth longer at the end.
And bookes it farther backward doe extend."

(Sir Thomas Overbury, The Wife.)
" Books should for one of these four ends conduce, —
For wisdom, piety, delight, or use."

(Sir John Denham.)
" Cease not to learne until thou cease to live ;

Think that day lost wherein thou draw'st no letter,
Nor gain'st no lesson, that new grace may give
To make thyself learneder, wiser, better."

{Quadf-ains of Pibmc, translated by JosHUA Sylvester.)
" Who readeth much and never meditates.
Is like a greedy eater of much food,
Who so surcloyes his stomach with his cates.
That commonly they do him little good."

(Ibid.)
"Reading maketh a full man, conference a ready man, and writing an exact man."

(Bacon's Essays— Of Studies.)

" Calm let me live, and every cai-e beguile,' —
Hold converse with the great of every time,
The leam'd of ev'ry class, the good of ev'ry clime."

(Rev. Samuel Bishop.)

** Of things that be strange,
Who loveth to read,
In these books let him range
His fancy to feed."

(Richard Robinson.)

FOR MUSEUMS OR LABORATORIES.

'* O mickle is the powerful grace that lies
In herbs, plants, stones, and their true qualities :
For nought's so vile that on the earth doth live,
But to the earth some special good doth give."

(Shakspere.
" Speak to the earth, and it shall teach thee."

(Solomon.)

FOR A SURGICAL MUSEUM.

"There is no theam more plentifulljo scan,
Than is the glorious, goodly frame of Man."

(Joshua Sylvester's Dtt J^arfai, 6th day.)

THE ART OF ILLUMINATING.

FOR JUSTICE-ROOMS.
•' 'Tis not enough that thou do no man wrong, —
Thou even in others must suppress the same,
Righting the weake against th' unrighteous strong,
Whether it touch his hfe, his goods, his name."

{Quadrains of Pibnic, trans, by Joshua SYLVESTER.)
•* Upon the Law thy Judgments alwayes ground,
And not on man : For that 's affection-less.
But man in Passions strangely doth abound ;
Th' one all like God : Th' other too-like to beasts."

{Id, eod.)

FOR CASINOS OR SUMMER-HOUSES.

"Abused mortals, did you know
Where joy, heart's ease, and comfort grow, |
You'd scorn proud towers.
And seek them in these bowers ;
Where winds, perhaps, sometimes our woods may shake,
But blustering care can never tempest make. "

(Sir Henry Wotton.)

'* We trample grasse, and prize the flowers of May ;
Yet grasse is greenc when flowers doe fade away. "

(Robert Southwell.)

** Blest who no false glare requiring,
Nature's rural sweets admiring.
Can, from grosser joys retiring,
Seek the simple and serene. "

(Isaac Bickerstaff. )

FOR A COUNTING-HOUSE.
" Omnia Somnia."

Gae, silly worm, drudge, trudge, and travell,

So thou maist gain
Some honour or some golden gravell :
But Death the while to fill his number,

With sudden call

Takes thee from all.
To prove thy dales but dream and slumber. "

(Joshua Sylvester, Mottoes.

FOR OFFICES OR WORKSHOPS.

' ' Have more than thou showcst ;
Speak less than thou knowest ;
Lend more than thou owest ;
Learn more than thou trowest. "

(Shakspere.)

62 THE ART OF ILLUMINATING.

*' A spending hand that alway poureth out,
Had need to have a bringer-in as fast ;
And on the stone that still doth turn about

There groweth no moss : these proverbs yet do last."

(Sir T. Wyatt.)
*' How many might in time have wise been made,
Before their time, had they not thought them so?
What artist e'er was master of his trade
Yer he began his prenticeship to know ?

*' To some one act apply thy whole affection,
And in the craft of others seldom mell ; -
But in thine own strive to attain perfection,
For 'tis no little honour to excell."

{Quadra i7is of Fibrac, translated by JosHUA Sylvester.)

"If youth knew what age would crave,
Youth would then both get and save.'*

" Flee, flee, the idle brain ;

Flee, flee from doing naught;
For never was there idle brain,
But bred an idle thought."

*' Get to live; then live and use it, else it is not true that thou hast gotten."

(G. Herbert.)
*' To him that is willing, ways are not wanting."

FOR SHOPS.
Whoso tntsteth ere he klloW,

Doth hurt himself and please his foe.'' \

(Sir Thomas Wyatt.) ^

" Think much of a trifle.
Though small it appear ;
Small sands make tlie mouiitaiH,
And moments the year."

FOR A BELL-TURRET.
We lake no note of time
But from its loss ; to give it then a tongue

Is wise in man.

(Young's Night Thoughts.)

FOR A BATHtNG-HOUSE.

Do not fear to put thy feet

Naked in the tivet sWeet j

Think nor leach, or newt, Or toad

Will bite thy foot, where thou hast trod."

(Beaumont and Fletcher, Faithful Shepherdess.

THE ART OP ILLUMmATmC. 63

With those Still more admirable "legends" which may be selected from the
Bible I do not meddle. In it golden words of comfort and admonition lie strewn
so thickly, that error cannot be made by a selector. It may not be amiss, also,
for the illuminator to remember, that not unfrequently " a verse may find him whom
a sermon flies."

I cannot quit this portion of my theme without one word of summary, in the
way of advice, to the designer of illumination, on whatever material applied.
Briefly, then, let him eschew quaintness, and aim at beauty ; let him not shrink
from beauty in old times because it was masked in quaintness ; but with a dis-
criminating eye let him learn to winnow the chaff from the wheat, and, scattering
the one to the winds, let him garner up the other in the storehouse of his memory,
and for the sustenance of his artistic life ; and let him rest assured that the most
original designers, in all ages, have been usually those who have gathered
most widely and profoundly from the failures, successes, and experiences of their
predecessors.

PART III.

HOW THE ART OF HLUMINA TING MA Y BE PRACTISED.

ON analysis it will be found that this section of my Essay resolves itself into
three divisions, embracing respectively, istly, the ancient processes; 2ndly,
the modern processes ; and, srdly, the possible processes, not yet introduced into
common use. Of the last, I do not purpose speaking in the present work.
Notices ef the first of these might of course have been incorporated with the
historical section of this Essay ; but, upon reflection, I considered it would be most
useful to the student to introduce them, in a collected form, in this place ; and for
the following reasons : — istly, in order that they might not interrupt the thread of
the narrative ; and, 2ndly, because I considered it desirable to put the ancient and
modem processes in direct contrast, so that the amateur might be the better
enabled to reject what is obsolete in the former, and to revive any which might
appear to promise greater technical excellence or facility than he might be enabled
to obtain through the employment of the latter.

I commence, therefore, with the Aitdent processes.

Sir Charles Eastlake, who has profoundly studied the history and theory of the
subject, has justly remarked^ the intimate relation which, in the classical ages,
existed between the physician and the painter, — the former discovering, supplying,
and frequently preparing, the materials used by the latter. This ancient connec-
tion was not broken during those ages when almost all knowledge and practice of
either medicine or art were limited to the walls of the cloister. The zealous
fathers not only worked themselves to the best of their ability, but delighted in
training up their younger brethren to perpetuate the credit and revenue derived
from their skill, knowledge, and labour, by the monasteries to which they were
attached. " Nor was it merely by oral instruction that technical secrets were com-
municated : the traditional and practical knowledge of the monks was condensed
in short manuscript formulae, sometimes on the subject of the arts alone, but
oftener mixed up with chemical and medicinal receipts. These collections, still
more heterogeneous in their contents as they received fresh additions from other
hands, were afterwards published by secular physicians, under the title of * Secreta.'

* ** Materials for a History of Oil-painting," by Charles Lock Eastlake : London, 1847.

THE ART OF ILLUMINATING. 65

The earliest of such manuals serve to show the nature of the researches which were
undertaken in the convent for the practical benefit of the arts. Various motives
might induce the monks to devote themselves with zeal to such pursuits. It has
been seen that their chemical studies were analogous ; that their knowledge of the
materials fittest for technical purposes, derived as it was from experiments which
they had abundant leisure to make, was likely to be of the best kind. Painting
was holy in their eyes ; and, although the excellence of the work depended on the
artist, it was for them to insure its durability. By a singular combination of cir-
cumstances, the employers of the artist, the purchasers of pictures (for such the
fraternities were in the majority of cases), were often the manufacturers of the
painter's materials. Here, then, was another plain and powerful reason for fur-
nishing the best-prepared colours and vehicles. The cost of the finer pigments
was, in almost every case, charged to the employer \ but economy could be
combined with excellence of quality, when the manufacture was undertaken by the
inmates of the convent."

All that is asserted in this passage with respect to painting, holds equally good
with regard to the materials requisite for the practice of the Art of Illumination ;
and the same treatises which are illustrative of art generally, almost invariably
include specific instructions with regard to the particular branch of it I am now
endeavouring to illustrate.

Fortunately, the series of these " Secreta " both commences from a remote
date, and is tolerably complete from that to a quite recent period. Scattered
allusions to the processes of art and industry may be met with in the writings of
several authors of the Alexandrian Neo-Platonic school in the early ages of the
Church, from whom the Byzantine Greeks, no doubt, learnt much ; but the most
ancient collection on the subject is to be met with in the treatise of Heraclius, or
Eraclius, " de Artibus Romanorum."^ It would appear not to have been written
earlier than the 7 th or later than the loth century,'^ its art being, as Mr. Robert
Hendrie, the learned translator and editor of the essay of Theophilus, of whom
mention will presently be made, observes, " of the school of Pliny, increased, it is
true, by Byzantine invention, but yet essentially Roman." '^ The next collection, in
point of age, is that published by Muratori,"* and well known as the " Lucca
Manuscript," ascribed by Mabillon to the age of Charlemagne, and by Muratori
himself to a period certainly not later than the loth century. Its Latinity is
barbarous, but I scarcely think I can go wrong in following the translation of so
careful a writer as Sharon Turner in the following extracts, which treat of illumina-
tion, and give us a clear insight into the practice of the school founded under the
patronage of the great Prankish emperor of the West.

' The most copious text of Heralicus is contained in the Le Begue collection of writers on art,,
brought together by Master Jolin Le Begue, of Paris, in the 15th century.

^ Sir Charles Eastlake does not place Heraclius so early as Raspe and Mi*. Hendrie do,
I incline to agree with the last-named critics.

^ The text of Heraclius is given not from the Le Begue manuscript, but from one less perfect,
formerly at Cambridge, but now in the British Museum, Egerton 840 A, in Raspe's work — "A
Critical Essay on Oil-painting." London, 1781.

* Muratori, «' Antiq. Ital. Medii AWx,'' p. 269.

F

66 THE ART OF ILLUMINATING.

The first I select refers to the preparation of the calf-skin.

" Put it under lime and let it lie for three days ; then stretch it, scrape it well on both sides, and
dry it ; then stain it with the colours you wish. "

The second directs how skins may be gilt.

" Take the red skin and carefully pumice and temper it in tepid water, and pour the water on it
till it runs off limpid ; stretch it afterwards, and smooth it diligently with clean wood. When it is
dry, take the whites of eggs and smear it therewith thoroughly ; when it is dry, sponge it with
water, press it, dry it again, and polish it ; then rub it with a clean skin, and polish it again and
gild it."

Such gilding was effected with gold leaf^ beaten out between small sheets of
" Greek parchment, which is made from linen cloth " {i.e. paper), enclosed in vellum.
White of Qgg was used as the mordant for fixing on the gold.

The following two passages instruct the student in preparing gold for writing.

' ' File gold very finely, put it in a mortar, and add the sharpest vinegar ; rub it till it becomes
black, and then pour it out. Put to it some salt or nitre, and so it will dissolve. So you may write
with it ; and thus all the metals may be dissolved.

'* Take thin plates of gold and silver, rub them in a mortar with Greek salt or nitre till it
disappears. Pour on water and repeat it ; then add salt, and so wash it. When the gold remains
even, add a moderate portion of the flowers of copper and bullock's gall ; rub them together, and
write and burnish the letters."

The next and last, alludes to the amalgam, which appears to have been for
many centuries a favourite method of applying gold to parchment and other
surfaces.

** Melt some lead, and frequently immerse it in cold water. Melt gold, and pour that into the
same water, and it will become brittle. Then, rub the gold filings carefully with quicksilver, and
purge it carefully while it is liquid. Before you write, dip the pen in liquid alum, which is best
purified by salt and vinegar. "

In these instructions the student may distinctly recognize the processes adopted
in the production of those gilt texts on stained vellum grounds which were so-
highly prized in the Carlovingian age.

In the writings of an ecclesiastic, probably nearly contemporary with the

Norman conquest, the monk Rugenis, or " Theophilus," we arrive at a really

perfect picture^ of the arts of the nth century. The first of the three books into

which his " Schedule of different Arts " is divided, is dedicated entirely to painting.

It contains forty chapters, of which thirty refer to the preparation and application

of pigments generally, both for oil, tempera, and fresco painting, and ten to the

various processes connected with illumination. Of these, the following are the

most important.

CHAPTER XXX.

OF GRINDING GOLD FOR BOOKS, AND OF CASTING THE MILL.

When you have traced out figures or letters in books, take pure gold and file it very finely in a
clean cup or small basin, and wash it with a pencil in the shell of a tortoise, or a shell which is

* The title he himself gives to his work illustrates its comprehensive character — ** Theophili qui
et Rugerus, Presbyteri et Monachi Libri III. de diversis Artibus, seu diversarum Artium Schedula."
Translations, with excellent critical comments, liaA^e been made by the Count de I'Escalopier into
French, and by Mr. Robert Hendrie into English. In the extracts here given I have followed the
accurate text of the last-named gentleman.

THE ART OF ILLUMINAIING. dl

taken out of the water. Have then a mill with its pestle, both cast from metal of copper and tin
mixed together, so that three parts may be of pure copper, and the fourth of pure tin, free from
lead. With this composition the mill is cast in the form of a small mortar, and its pestle round
about an iron in the form of a knot, so that the iron may protrude of the thickness of a finger, and
in length a little more than half a foot, the third part of which iron is fixed in wood carefully turned,
in length about one yard, and pierced very straightly ; in the lower part of which, however, of the
length of four fingers from the end, must be a revolving wheel, either of wood or of lead, and in
the middle of the upper part is fixed a leather strap, by which it can be pulled, and, in revolving,
be drawn back. Then this mill is placed in a hollow, upon a bench fitted for it, between two small
wooden pillars firmly fixed into the same bench, upon which another piece of wood is to be inserted,
which can be taken out and replaced, in the middle of which, at the lower part, is a hole in which
the pestle of the mill will revolve. These things thus disposed, the gold, carefully cleansed, is put
into the mill, a little water added, and the pestle placed, and the upper piece of wood fitted, the
strap is drawn and is permitted to revolve, again pulled, and again it revolves, and this must so be
done for two or three hours. Then the upper wood is taken off, and the pestle washed in the same
water with a pencil. Afterwards the mill is taken up, and the gold, with the water, is stirred to
the bottom with the pencil, and is left a little, until the grosser part subsides ; the water is presently
poured into a very clean basin, and whatever gold comes away with the water is ground.
Replacing the water and the pestle, and wood above being placed, again it is milled in the same
way as before, until it altogether comes away with the water. In the like manner^re ground silver,
brass, and copper. But gold is ground most carefully, and must be lightly milled ; and you must
often inspect it, because it is softer than the other metals, that it may not adhere to the mill or the
pestle, and become heaped together. If through negligence this should happen, that which is
conglomerate is scraped together and taken out, and wha.t is left is milled until finished. Which
being done, pouring out the upper water with the impurities from the basin, wash the gold carefully
in a clean shell ; then pouring the water from it, agitate it with the pencil, and when you have had
♦it in your hand for one hour, pour it into another shell, and keep that very fine part which has come
away with the waters. Then again, water being placed with it, warm it and stir it over the fire,
and, as before, pour away the fine particles with the water, and you may act thus until you shall
have purified it entirely. After this wash with water the same refined part, and in the same manner
a second a.nd a third time, and whatever gold you gather mix with the former. In the same way
you will wash silver, brass, and copper. Afterwards take the bladder of a fish which is called huso
(sturgeon), and washing it three times in tepid water, leave it to soften a night, and on the morrow
warm it on the fire, so that it does not boil up until you prove with your finger if it adhere, and
when it does adhere strongly, the glue is good.

CHAPTER XXXI.

HOW GOLD AND SILVER ARE LAID IN BOOKS.

Afterwards take pure minium (red lead), and add to it a third part of cinnabar (vermilion),
grinding it upon a stone with water. Which being carefully ground, beat up the clear of the white
of an egg, in summer with water, in winter without water ; and when it is clear, put the minium
into a horn and pour the clear upon it, and stir it a little with a piece of wood put into it, and with
a pencil fill up all places with it upon which you wish to lay gold. Then place a little pot with
glue over the fire, and when it is liquefied, pour it into the shell of gold and wash it with it. When
you have poured which into another shell, in which the purifying is kept, again pour in warm glue,
and holding it in the palm of your left hand, stir it carefully with the pencil, and lay it on where
you wish, thick or thin, so, however, that there be little glue, because, should it exceed, it blackens
the gold and does not receive a polish ; but after it has dried, polish it with a tooth or bloodstone
carefully filed and polished, upon a smooth and shining horn tablet. But should it happen, through
negligence of the glue not being well cooked, that the gold pulverizes in rubbing, or rises on
account of too great thickness, have near you some old clear of tgg^ beat up without water, and
directly with a pencil paint slightly and quickly over the gold ; when it is dry, again rub it with the
tooth or stone. Lay hi this manner silver, brass, and copper in their place and polish them.

F 2

68 THE ART OF ILLUMINATING,

The raised gold was not always produced by the mixture of red lead and white
of Qgg recommended by Theophilus. It was, especially in Italy, frequently made
of a composition of "gesso," or plaster, and in the 15th century was often
punctured all over by way of ornament. It may be occasionally met with stamped
over in patterns, with intaglio punches. This "gesso raising," though very brilliant,
possessed little tenacity, and in many examples it has scaled off, while the more
ancient " raising " prescribed by Theophilus has adhered perfectly.

CHAPTER XXXII.

HOW A PICTURE IS ORNAMENTED IN BOOKS WITH TIN AND SAFFRON.

But if you have neither of these (gold, silver, brass, or copper), and yet wish to decorate your
work in some manner, take tin pure and finely scraped, mill .it and wash it like gold, and aj^ply it
with the same glue, upon letters or other places which you wish to ornament with gold or silver ;
and when you have polished it with a tooth, take saffi-on, with which silk is coloured, moistening it
with clear of egg without water, and when it has stood a night, on the following day cover with a
pencil the places which you wish to gild, the rest holding the place of silver. Then make fine traits
round letters and leaves, and flourishes from minium, with a j^en, also the stuffs of dresses and other
ornaments. •

CHAPTER XXXIII.

OF EVERY SORT OF GLUE FOR A PICTURE OF GOLD.

If you have not a bladder (of the sturgeon), cut up thick parchment or vellum in the same
manner, — wash and cook it. Prepare also the skin of an eel carefully scraped, cut up and washed
in the same manner. Prepare thus also the bones of the head of the wolf-fish washed and dried,
carefully washed in water three times. To whichever of these you have prepared, add a third part
of very transparent gum, simmer it a little, and you can keep it as long as you wish.

CHAPTER XXXIV.

How COLOURS ARE TEMPERED FOR BOOKS.

These things thus accomplished, make a mixture of the clearest gum and water as above, and
temper all colours except green, and ceruse, and minium, and carmine. Salt green is worth nothing
for j^ooks. ^ou will temper Spanish green with pure wine, and if you wish to make shadows, add
a little sap of' iris, or cabbage, or leek. You will temper minium, and ceruse, and carmine, with
clear of egg. Compose all preparations of colours for a book as above, if you want them for
painting figiires. All colours are laid on twice in books, at first very thinly, then more thickly ; but
twice for letters.

The next extract I give is of great interest in the technical history of illumina-
tion, on three accounts ; firstly, because it guides the student to recognize in
madder the purple stain and colour, so highly prized in the early periods of the
art ; secondly, because it shows him the manner in which fugitive vegetable tints
Were protected from the decomposing influence of the atmosphere by an albuminous
varnish ; and third]y, because it illustrates the ordinary modern processes of under
painting, and glazing with transparent colour. The " folium " of the Greek illu-
minators was procured from plants growing abundantly near Athens, while that of
the Hiberno-Saxon Scribes was obtained from the "norma" or "gorma" of the
Celts. Mr. Hendrie, in his learned notes to Theophilus, has traced successive

THE ART OF ILLUMINATING. 69

recipes for the preparation of " folium," in which the identity of the base giving the
colouring matter is clearly established. It is curious that the collections of
" Secreta " should give as the only countries supplying the materials for making
" folium," those two in which the use of the bright purple stain ascends to the very
earliest of their decorated manuscripts. The following is the description given by
Theophilus : — -

CHAPTER XXXV.

OF THE KINDS AND THE TEMPERING OF FOLIUM.

There are three kinds of folium, one red, another purple, a third blue, which you will thus
temper. Take ashes, and sift them through a cloth, and sprinkling them with cold water, make
rolls of them in form of loaves, and placing them in the fire, leave them until they quite glow.
After they have first burnt for a very long time, and have afterwards cooled, place a portion of them
in a vessel of clay, pouring urine upon them and stirring with wood. When it has deposed in a
clear manner, pour it upon the red foliiuii, and, grinding it slightly upon a stone, add to it a fourth
part of quick lime, and when it shall be ground and sufficiently moistened, strain it through a cloth,
and paint with a pencil where you wish, thinly ; afterwards more thickly. And if you wish to
imitate a robe in a page of a book, with purple folium ; with the same tempering, without the
mixture of lime, paint first with a pen, in the same page, flourishes or circles, and in them birds or
beasts, or leaves ; and when it is dry, paint red folium over all, thinly, then more thickly, and a
third time if necessary ; and afterwards paint over it some old clear of egg. Paint over also with glaire
of egg, draj^eries, and all things which you have painted with folium and carmine. Vou can
likewise preserve the burned ashes which remain for a long time, dry.

I conclude* the series of receipts extracted from Theophilus by one not
further bearing upon the Art of Illumination, than as proving the nature of
the ink which has generally retained its colour so wonderfully in the ancient
manuscripts.

CHAPTER XL.

OF INK.

To make ink, cut for yourself wood of the thorn-trees in April or May, before they produce
flowers or leaves, and collecting them in small bundles, allow them to lie in the shade for two,
three, or four weeks, until they are somewhat dry. Then have wooden mallets, with which you
beat these thorns upon another piece of hard wood, until you peel off the bark everywhere, put
which immediately into a barrelful of water. When you have filled two, or three, or four, or five

* I cannot take leave of this good old monk, the influence exercised by whose writings during
the whole of the Middle Ages, is proved by the numerous transcripts of them executed at different
periods, still preserved in most of the chief European libraries, without giving him credit for a pure
and liberal philanthropy worthy of imitation in all ages. Nothing can be more dignified and noble
than the words in which he concludes the introduction to his work. After reciting the various arts
he has endeavoured to illustrate, and the sufferings and labour through which the knowledge he
desires to convey to others had been acquired by himself, he winds up by saying : —

"When you shall have re-read this often, and have committed it to your tenacious memory, you
shall thus recompense me for this care of instruction, that, as often as you shall successfully have
made use of my work, you pray for me for the pity of omnipotent God, who knows that I have
written these things which are here arranged, neither through love of human approbation, nor
through desire of temporal reward, nor have I stolen anything precious or rare through envious
jealousy, nor have I kept back anything reserved for myself alone ; but, in augmentation of the
honour and glory of His name, I h^ve consulted the progress and hastened to aid the necessities of
jnany men."

TO THE ART OF ILLUMINATING,

barrels with bark and water, allow them so to stand for eight days, until the waters imbibe all the
sap of the bark. Afterwards put this water into a very clean pan, or into a cauldron, and fire being
placed under it, boil it ; from time to time, also, throw into the pan some of this bark, so that
, whatever sap may remain in it may be boiled out. When you have cooked it a little, throw it
out, and again put in more ; which done, boil down the remaining water unto a third part, and then,
pouring it out of this pan, put it into one smaller, and cook it until it grows black and begins to
thicken ; add one third part of pure wine, and putting it into two or three new pots, cook it until
you see a sort of skin show itself on the surface ; then taking these pots from the fire, place them in
the sun until the black ink purifies itself from the red dregs. Afterwards take small bags of parch-
ment, carefully sewn, and bladders, and pouring in the pure ink, suspend them in the sun until all
is quite dry ; and when dry, take from it as much as you wish, and temper it with wine over the
fire, and, adding a little vitriol, write. But, if it should happen through negligence that your ink
be not black enough, take a fragment of the thickness of a finger, and putting it into the fire, allow
it to glow, and throw it directly into the ink.

The next collection of Secreta, in point of importance and probable antiquity,
is the " Mappae Clavicula," or " little key to drawing," a manuscript treatise on the
preparation of pigments, and on various processes of the decorative arts practised
during the Middle Ages, in the possession of Sir Thomas Phillipps, of Middle
Hill.^ The proprietor of the volume, Mr. Hendrie, Sir Charles Eastlake, and (last,
not least) Mr. Albert Way, agree in considering it highly probable that it may
be an English collection, probably of about the reign of Henry II. Like the
''Schedula" of Theophilus, it presents a very miscellaneous series of recipes, and
tends to prove, what is very generally believed by the learned, that the " Masters
of Arts " of old were frequently skilled, not in special departments of production,
such as the modern division-of-labour system has created, but in multifarious avoca-
tions, such as we should not now readily recognize as likely to be practised by any
single individual.

These collections remarkably illustrate the class of knowledge likely to have
been possessed by such apparently versatile geniuses as St. Dunstan, St. Eloi,
Bemward of . Hildesheim, Tutilo the monk of St. Gall, and many others. The
author of the " Mappae Clavicula," in a few lines of poetical introduction to his
teachings, defines the first necessity for painters to be, a knowledge of the manufac-
ture of colours, then a command over the various modes of mixing them, then
dexterity in using and heightening them in different kinds of work j and, ultimately,
he commends to their attention a variety of information for the advancement of
art generally, derived from the writings of many learned men, — " Sicut liber iste
docebit." Thus under two hundred and nine heads, but with some tautology, he
proceeds to treat, as Sir Thomas Phillipps observes, not only of the composition
of colours, but " of a variety of other subjects, in a concise and simple manner,
and generally very intelligibly ; as for instance, architecture, mensuration of
altitudes, the art of war," &c. Among the recipes, in addition to those referring
to pigments, are many relating to illuminating. The following, for instance, is
curious as defiining clearly what were the best and most important tints for
illumination : —

•

• It will be foimd given in extenso in the 32nd vol. of " The Archceologia," pp. 183—244, with
an elaborate Jetter from its possessor.

THE ART OF ILLUMINATING,

Of different Colours.

** These colours are cleai- and full-bodied for parchment: — Azorium (azure), Vermiculum (ver-
milion), wSanguis Draconis (dragon's blood), Carum (yellow ochre), Minium (red lead), Folium
(madder purple), Auripigmentum (orpiment), Viride Grsecum (acetate of copper), Gravetum Indi-
cum (indigo), Bnuium (brown). Crocus (yellow), Minium Rubeum vel Album (red or white lead),
Nigrum Optimum ex carbone vitis (th^ best black made from carbonized vine twigs) ; all these
colours are mixed with white of egg."

The mixture of colours appears to have been reduced to a perfect system, each
hue having others specially adapted and used, for heightening and lowering the
pure tint ; thus the author gives directions which are likely to be scarcely less
useful to the illuminator of the present day than they were to those of old.

Of Mixtures,

"If, therefore, you should desire to know the natures and mixtures of these [the above-given]
colours, and which are antagonistic to each other, lend your ear diligently.

** Mix azure with white lead, lower with indigo, heighten with white lead. Pure vermilion you
may lower with brown or with dragon's blood, and hdghten with orpiment. Mix vermiUon with
white lead, and make the colour which is Called Rosa^ lower it with vermilion, heighten it with
white lead. Item, you may make a colour with dragon's blood and orpiment, which you may
lower with brown, and heighten with orpiment. Yellow ochre you may lower with brown, and
heighten with red lead (query, with white). Item, you may make Rosam' of yellow ochre and
white lead, deepen with yellow ochre, heighten with white lead. Reddish purple (folium) may be
lowered with brown and heightened with white lead. Item, mix folium with white lead, lower
with folium, and heighten with white lead. Orpiment may be lowered with vermilion, but cannot
be heightened, because it stains all other colours."

Of Teniperitig.

** Greek green you will temper with acid, deepen with black, and heighten with white, made
from stag's horn (ivory black). Mix green with white lead, deepen with pure green, and heighten
with white lead. Greenish blue, deepen with green, heighten with white lead. Yellow, deepen
with vennilion, heighten with white lead. Indigo, deepen with black, heighten with azure. Item,
mix indigo with white, deepen with azure, heighten with white lead. Brown, deepen with black,
heighten with red lead. Item, make of brown and white lead a dral) (Rosam), lower with brown,
heighten with white lead. Item, mix yellow with white lead, lower with yellow, heighten with
white lead. Lower red lead with brown, heighten with white lead. Item, red lead with brown,
deepen with black, heighten with red lead. Item, you may make flesh-colour of red lead and white,
lower with vermilion, heighten with white lead."

Which Colours are Antagonistic.

**If you wish to know in what manner colours are antagonistic, this is it. Orpiment (sulphuret
of arsenic) does not agree with purple (folio), nor with green (acetate of copper), nor with red
lead, nor white lead. Green does not agree with purple.'*

"If you wish to make grounds, make a fine rose-colour of vermilion and white. Item, make
a ground of pui-ple mixed with chalk. Item, make a ground of green, mixed with vinegar.
Item, make a ground of the same green, and when it shall have become dry, cover it with size
(* caule ').

' There is some confusion about this word, for it is used to denote mixtures which would
produce real rose-colour, light Avarm yellow, and a perfect drab.
^ That is, the mineral green with the vegetable madder.

72 THE ART OF ILLUMINATING.

" If you wish to write in gold, take powder of gold and moisten it with size, made from the
very same parchment on which you have to write ; and with the gold and size near to the fire ;
and, when the writing shall be dry, burnish with a very smooth stone, or with the tooth of a wild
boar. Item, if then you should wish to make a robe or a picture, you may apply gold to the
parchment, as I have above directed, and shade with ink or with indigo, and heighten with
orpiment. "

#

The above are the principal passages in the " Mappse Clavicula," which supply-
deficiencies in most other books of Secreta ; and I have translated them at length,
both on account of the accuracy with which I have found the directions followed
in ancient illuminated manuscripts; and because I believed that a knowledge of
this ancient scale of colours might greatly facilitate accurate copying from old
examples. I need scarcely say, that as the art of painting improved in Italy and
the Netherlands, the illuminator's palette became enriched with several new and
very brilliant colours ; — such as the ultramarines and carmines (exceedingly scarce
in early manuscripts), which make the books produced at Rome and in Northern
Italy, during the i6th and 17th centuries, glow with a vivacity never previously
attained. Every improvement made in one country was, however, speedily com-
municated through these very art-treatises to other countries, and thus we find lakes
and carmines freely used in England during the 15 th century.^ Ultramarine, in-
deed, forms the special subject of an essay by a Norman, comprised among the Le
Begue MSS. (already referred to), under the following title, which proves its novelty
in Western Europe, at the beginning of the 15 th century: —

"Anno 141 1, Johannes de [illegible] Normannus de

Azurro novo, lapidis lazuUi ultramarini."

The next collection of Secreta in importance, and probably in date to the
" Mappse Clavicula," is that of a Frenchman, Peter de St. Audemar. " With this
treatise," observes Sir Charles Eastlake, " may be classed a similar one in the
British Museum, written in the 14th century," but treating of a somewhat earlier
practice in art. The identity of the colours for, and practice of, painters on wall
and panel, and illuminators on vellum, is proved by the instructions to both being
almost invariably given in the same books. Thus, the volume last mentioned com
mences — " Incipit tractatus de coloribus lUuminatorum sen Pictorum " — as though
there existed no practical distinction between them. Another manuscript, of later
date, also in the Le Begue collection, exhibits, in its title even, a curious picture of
the industry with which the Art of Illumination was studied in the principal coun-
tries of Europe, — introducing the student to a scribe, actually keeping a school at
Milan. Thus, " Liber Johannis Archerius, a.d. 1398. Ut accessit a JacoboCona,
Flamingo pictore : — Capitula de coloribus ad illuminandum libros ab eodem
Archerio sive Alcherio, ut accessit ab Antonio de compendio illuminatore librorum
in Parisiis et a Magistro Alberto Pozotto perfectissimo in omnibus modis scribendi,
Mediolani scholas tenente."

Here we have, in a few lines, evidence of the concurrence of no less, probably,
than four distinct nationalities to make up one set of instructions. Hov/ever illumi-

' A beautiful example may be found in Dan Lydgate's legends of St. Edmund and St. Fremund,
MS. Harleian, 2278.

THE ART OF ILLUMINATING. J^

nated manuscripts may differ in style from each other, according to the countries
in which they may have been produced, the technical processes, from the com-
mencement of the 15th century, scarcely differed at all, probably through the
general spread of these " handbooks of the Middle Ages."

From the 14th century onwards, the treatises, or rather probably composite
transcripts from earlier treatises, multiply greatly ; so far, however, as I have been
able to make out from the able analyses made by Sir C. Eastlake, Mr. Hendrie,
and Mrs. Merrifield, of many, they contain little more information than is conveyed
in the extracts already given. Some curious details, however, may be gathered as
to the London practice in the 15 th century, which may interest the reader. A
manuscript, written in German, as is believed at that date, is preserved in the
public library at Strasburg, which distinctly proves that the colours for illuminating
were commonly preserved by steeping small pieces of linen in the tinted extracts,
sometimes mixed with alkaline solutions. The process is minutely described in
this MS. ; the dyes so prepared are there called " tiichlein varvven," literally " cloth-
let colours." The following passage from another compendium, a Venetian MS.,
gives the result in few words : — '* When the aforesaid pieces of cloth are dry, put
them in a book of cotton paper, and keep the book under your pillow, that it may
take no damp ; and when you wish to use the colours, cut off a small portion [of
the cloth], and place it in a shell with 'a little water, the evening before. In the
morning the tint will be ready, the colour being extracted from the linen." This
practice is alluded to by Cennini, when he says : — " You can shade with colours,»
^and by means of small pieces of cloth, according to the process of the illumi-
nators."

The German compiler, speaking of the preparation of a blue colour in this
mode, says, " If you wish to make a beautiful clothlet blue colour according to the
London practice," &c. After describing the method of preparing it, he adds : —
" These [pieces of cloth] may be preserved fresh and brilliant, without any change
in their tints, for twenty years ; and this colour, in Paris and in London, is called
[blue] for missals, and here in this country clothlet blue ; it is a beautiful and valu-
able colour."

" The place denominated Lampten^ mentioned together with Paris^ can be no
other than London." ^

As pursuing the subject of ancient processes further than I have now done
would scarcely be profitable to the student, I proceed to the second division of
this part of my subject, and accordingly take up the modem processes. In offering
the following details on this subject, however, to the amateur's attention, I would
'not for one moment let it be supposed that a knowledge of them alone will be
sufficient to make him an efficient illuminator. Fortunately many very excellent
artists have of late devoted themselves to giving instruction in the practical mani-
pulation of the art, and amateurs cannot do better than place themselves at once in
communication with masters, whose addresses may be obtained at the shops of the
principal artists' colourmen. There will still be, no doubt, in different parts of the
1 " Materials for a History of Oil-painting," by Charles Lock Eastlake (Lond. 1847), pp.
127, 128.

74 THE ART OF JLLUMINA7ING,

country, many desirous of illuminating, and yet unable to obtain the benefit of
seeing a practised hand work before them, or even to pick up information as to
the 7nodtis operandi. To such, at least, the following observations may prove
useful.^

The two great sections, into which all the processes by which illumination of
any kind may be executed, divide themselves, are — ist, those in which water and
glutinous substances soluble in water form the vehicles for applying the pigments,
and causing them to adhere to the surfaces on which they may be applied ; and,
andly, those in which oil or spirit, and resins, or other substances which combine
readily with such fluids, are made to perform corresponding functions. The pig-
ments, reduced to an impalpable powder, are the same in both classes of processes,
which are commonly known as watercolour-painting and oil-painting. That which
was of old the artist's greatest stumbling-block — the manufacture and preparation
of his pigments, need now no longer occasion him the slightest embarrassment ; for
every colour with which his palette could be enriched is to be bought, ready
prepared, of the principal artists' colourmen. In like manner every other essential
for his use is now freely at his command ; and all that is required on his part is
knowledge how to employ the materials which others most dexterously and carefully
place at his disposal.

In commencing the collection of that information which I am now endeavouring
to communicate, I felt it my duty to enter jnto correspondence with all those
manufacturers whose products I had at different times personally tested ; and I
accordingly addressed myself to the following, whose materials, with insignificant
exceptions, I have invariably found satisfactory, both in nature and quality.

R. AcKERMAN, 191, Regent-street, W.

L. Barbe, 60, Quadrant, Regent-street, W.

J. Barnard, 339, Oxford-street, W.

Messrs. Brodie & Middleton, 79, Long-acre, W.C.

H. Miller, 56, Long-acre, W.C.

J. Newman, 24, Soho-square, W.

Messrs. Reeves & Sons, 113, Cheapside, E.C.

Messrs. Roberson, 99, Long-acre, W.C.

Messrs. Rowney & Co., 51, Rathbone-place, W.

Messrs. Sherborne & Tillyer, 321, Oxford-street, W.

Messrs. Winsor & Newton, 38, Rathbone-place, W.

From each of the above-mentioned firms I have obtained valuable information,
and from several, excellent samples of their products. I am glad, therefore, to take
the present opportunity of expressing my obligations to them. From Messrs.
Winsor & Newton, especially, I have received the kindest and most intelligent co-
operation ; and I am happy to be the channel of making public the results of a
series of experiments, on the combinations of colours and the use of various mate-
rials for illuminating purposes, suggested by me, and made with great tact and

' Mr. Edwin Jewitt's little ** Manual of Illuminated and Missal Painting," published by
Messrs. Barnard, of Oxford-street, and Mr. Noel Humphrey's hand-book on the same subject, have
no doubt proved useful to many, and helped to produce the quantity of good illumination now
executed,

THE ART OF ILLUMINATING,

75

judgment by Mr. W. H. Winsor. Messrs. Winsor & Newton and Mr. Barnard have,
up to the present time, done most to smooth away the difficulties which beset the
illuminator. Messrs. Newman, Messrs. Rowney & Co., Messrs. Reeves & Sons,
and Mr. Barbe, have also recently contributed valuable improvements or special
adaptations.^

The colours best suited for illuminating I believe to be as follows :

B

Lemon Yellow "^

A

Gamboge

A

Cadmium Yellow

Mars Yellow

Yellow.

B

Rose Madder I

A

Crimson Lake

C
C
A

Carmine

Orange Vermilion

Vermilion

^ Red.

A

Cobalt ]

A

French Blue

i)i.i<a

D
D
B
C
D
A
C

Smalt

Mars Orange -^

Burnt Sienna / Orange.

Burnt Carmine 'j

Indian Purple / Purple.

Emerald Green -n

Green Oxide of Chromium / Green.

B
A
A

Vandyke Brown

Lampblack

Chinese White

Brown.

Black.

White.

These colours are selected from the list of water-colours made at the present
day (upwards of eighty), and will, I think, be found to be all that can well be
required for illuminating. The whole number is by no means indispensable, and I
have therefore marked by different letters of the alphabet, — ist, A, those without
which it would be useless to commence work ; 2ndly, B, those which should first
be added ; 3rdly, C, those which are required for very great brilliancy in certain
effects ; and, 4thly, D, those which may be regarded as luxuries in the art. The
C are really important ; the D are much less so. Messrs. Winsor & Newton
have arranged them into four different lists, which are placed in boxes (complete
with colours and materials for working in water-colours), of the respective retail
values of £,\. is., jQ\. iis. 6d., jQz. 2S., and jQ^i- 3^- Boxes corresponding
with, or slightly varying from these, in selection . of colours and materials, may be
obtained from other artists' colourmen.

' For illumination in water-colour on paper, cardboard, or vellum, Messrs. Winsor & Newton,
Rowney, Barnard, Newman, and others, fit up boxes with special selections of all requisite
materials ; including all that can be wanted for the application and burnishing of gold and other
metals. Messrs. Miller's "Glass Mediums, Nos. i and 2," and Newman's *' Preparation for sizing
albumenized papers," are exceedingly useful for mixing with illuminating colours ; giving great
hardness and body to them, and preventing them from " washing up," in working over with glazing
and other lints. T have found Mr, Barbe's powder body-colours give remarkably solid tints, with
great freedom in working.

76 THE ART OF ILLUMmATING.

I now proceed to notice these colours seriatim, in reference to tlieir tints, both
when used alone and when mixed with other colours.

YELLOWS.

Lemon YellcniK — A vivid high-toned yellow, semi-opaque, is extremely telling upon gold.
Mixed with cadmium yellow it furnishes a range of brilliant warm yellows. It mixes well with
gamboge, orange vermilion, cobalt, emerald green, and oxide of chromium, and with any of these
produces clean and useful tints.

Gamboge. — A bright transparent yellow of light tone ; works freely, and is very useful for
glazing purposes. In combination witli lemon-yellow it affords a range of clean tints. When
mixed with a little Mars yellow it produces a clear, warm, transparent tone of colour.

Cadmintn Yellow. — A rich glowing yellow, powerful in tint, and semi-transparent. This is a
most effective colour for illuminating. When judiciously toned with white, it furnishes a series of
useful shades. Mixed with lemon-yellow it produces a range of clean vivid tints. It does not,
however, make good greens — they are dingy. Mixed with carmine, or glazed with it, it gives a
series of strong luminous shades.

Mars Yellotu. — A semi-transparent warm yellow, of slightly russet tone, but clean and bright
in tint. Useful where a quiet yellow is required ; mixes well with gamboge; does not make good
greens.

REDS.

Rose Madder. — A light transparent pink colour of extremely pure tone. It is delicate in tint,
but very effective, on account of its purity. Mixed with cobalt, it affords clean, warm, and cold
purples. The addition of a little carmine materially heightens the tone of this colour, though at the
same time it somewhat impairs its purity.

Crimson Lake. — A rich crimson colour, clean and transparent; washes and mixes well.
More generally useful than carmine, though wanting the intense depth and brilliancy of the latter
coloux*.

Carmine. — A deep-toned luminous crimson, much stronger than crimson lake. Is clean and
transparent. The brilliancy of this powerful colour can be increased, by using it over a ground of
gamboge.

Orange Vermilion. A high-toned opaque red, of pure and brilliant hue, standing in relation to
ordinary vermilion as carmine to crimson lake. It is extremely eflFective, and answers admirably
where vivid opaque red is required ; it works, washes, and mixes well. Its admixture with cad-
mium results in a fine range of warm luminous tints. When mixed with lemon yellow, it furnishes a
series of extremely clean and pure tints ; when toned with white, the shades are clear and effective.
This is a most useful colour.

Vermilion. — A dense deep-toned red, powerful in colour, and opaque. It is not so pure in tone
as orange vermilion, and is of most service when used alone ; it can, however, be thinned with
white and with yellows.

BLUES.

Cobalt Blue. — A light-toned blue, clean and pure in tint, and semi-transparent. This is the
lightest blue used in illuminating, and by the addition of white can be " paled" to any extent, the
tints keeping clear and good. Mixed with lemon yellow, it makes a clean useful green. Its
admixture with gamboge is not so satisfactory, and the green produced by its combination with
Mars yellow is dirty and useless. With rose madder it produces middling warm and cold pui-ples
(i.e. marones, and lilacs or violets) ; with crimson lake, strong and effective ones; with cannine,
ditto. A series of quiet neutral tints can be produced by its admixture with orange vermilion. The
tints in question are clean and good, and might occasionally be useful.

French Bhte. — A deep rich blue, nearly transparent ; is the best substitute for genuine ultra-
marine. The greens it makes with lemon yellow, gamboge, cadmium, and Mars yellow, are not
veiy effective or useful. The violets and marones it forms with rose madder are granulous and

THE ART OF ILLUMLVA TING. 77

unsatisfactory ; with carmine they arc somewhat better ; but those formed with crimson lake are
very good.

Smalt. — A brilliant, full-toned blue ; deep in tone, and nearly transparent ; luminous and very
effective when used alone. It is granulous, and does not wash or mix well. The greens it makes
are not particularly useful.

ORANGES.

Mars Orange.— K brilliant orange of very pure tone, transparent and ligliter in colour than
burnt sienna ; and is not so coarse or staring. An effective and useful colour.

Burnt Sienna. — A deep, rich orange, transparent and effective ; works well and mixes freely.

PURPLES.

Indian Purple— Kx\d\ deep-toned violet, or cold purple colour; most effective when used
alone. Can be lightened with French blue or cobalt, and the tints will be found useful.

Burnt Carmine.— K rich deep-toned marone or warm purple colour; transparent and brilliant ;
luminous and effective when used alone ; mixed with orange vermilion, it produces a strong rich
colour, and a quiet fleshy one when mixed with cadmium yellow.

GREENS.

Emerald Green. — An extremely vivid and high-toned green, opaque. No combination of blue
and yellow will match this colour, which is indispensable in illuminating. It can be "paled " with
white, and the tints thus produced are pure and clean. The tints afforded by its admixture with
lemon-yellow are also clear and effective.

Green Oxide of Chromium. — A very rich deep green, opaque, but effective. The tone of
this green renders it extremely useful in illuminating ; mixed with emerald green, it furnishes a
series of rich semi-transparent tints. Mixed with lemon-yellow, it gives quiet, useful shades of
green ; and when this combination is brightened with emerald green, the shades are luminous and
effective-

BROWN.

Vandyke Bro7on. — A deep, rich, transparent brown, luminous and clear in tint; works, washes,
and nlixes well. The best of all the browns for illuminating.

BLACK.'

Lampblack. — The most dense and deep of all the blacks, free from any shade of brown or
grey.

WHITE.

Chinese White. — A preparation of oxide of zinc, permanent, and the white best adapted for
illuminating. It is not only useful per se, but is indispensable for toning or reducing other
colours.

In making the list of the colours just described, I have assumed as a
sine qua /ion that the colours used in illuminating should be permanent. All
those enumerated are so (in water-colours), with the exception of carmine and
crimson lake ; and these, though theoretically not permanent, are yet found in
practice to be 7'ery lasting, especially when not too much exposed to the light. It
is a curious fact, that crimson lake, though a weaker colour than carmine, is yet
more permanent, in consequence of its different base, and that it will better stand
exposure to light.

I here take the opportunity of warmng amateurs, allured by their evident
brilliancy, against the use, in illumination, of the following five colours, viz. — pure

78 THE ART OF ILLUMINATING,

scarlet, red lead, chrome yellow, deep chrome, and orange chrome. None of these
are permanent ; the first-named being fugitive, and the others in time turning
black j but this is the less to be regretted, as there are permanent colours answer-
ing equally well for illumination. Of course, these are less fugitive in books, which
are generally protected from the action of light and air, than they would be in
pictures.

The preceding remarks on pigments apply, with no difference worth noting, to
colours prepared either for oil or for water-colour ; which may therefore be laid on,
by varying the vehicle for their proper application, to the surfaces of any of those
materials which have been specified, in the Second Part of this Essay, as available
for different kinds of illumination. I now proceed to notice the special j^rocesses
requisite in each case, commencing with those which may be best employed for
vellum. This substance consists of sheep-skin, carefully cleansed and scraped, and
repeatedly washed in diluted sulphuric acid. The surface is rubbed down with
fine pumice-stone to a smooth face, and in that condition it is fit for working upon.
It is sold, prepared for use, at all the principal shops. If it has not been pre-
viously strained, or if many tints are likely to be floated over the surface, it will be
well to strain it down upon a strainer or board before attempting to draw upon it.
This may be done by damping the vellum, and then either gluing or nailing its
edges down. When dry, it will be found to lie perfectly flat and smooth. It may
be well, then, to wash it over with a dilute preparation of ox-gall, to overcome any
possible greasiness, and prepare it to receive colour freely. Mr. Barnard, and, I
beheve, other artists' colourmen, supply vellum mounted in block-books, similar to
those made up of drawing-paper for sketching on ; and by providing himself with
one of those, the amateur may avoid the trouble of having to mount his own
vellum.

As it is by no means easy to remove pencil-marks from vellum (and indeed
it is never wise to attempt it, for the black-lead unites with the animal fat,
which can never be entirely got out of the material, and rubs under the action of
India-rubber or bread into a greasy smudge), it is always well to set out the design
in the first instance upon drawing-paper. The best mode for good work is to com-
plete the outline on drawing-paper, and then to trace it carefully with a hard j^encil
on a piece of tracing-paper, about one inch larger each way than the entire surface
of the vellum ; then cut out, the exact size of the vellum, a piece of tracing or
tissue paper, rubbed evenly over with powdered red chalk.^ Lay the tracing down
(pencilled side upwards) in its right place upon the vellum, and fasten down one
edge with pins, gum, or mouth-glue. Then slip the transfer-paper, with the chalked
side downwards, between the vellum and the tracing until it exactly covers the
former — touching the back of the transfer-paper with two or three drops of gum on
its margin. Then lay the tracing over, and fasten down another of its edges. The
gum drops will prevent the transfer-paper slipping away from the tracing-paper,
when the drawing-board or strainer is placed upon a sloping desk or easel. Taking

* This had better be bought ready pj-epared, since some experience is requisite in so applying
the red chalk as to prevent its depositing under the weight of the hand, and yet coming off
sufficiently in the line traced by the point.

THE ART OF ILLUMINATING. 79

care to keep a piece of stout card or pasteboard under the hand, go over all the lines
of the tracing with a blunted etching-point, or a very hard pencil cut sharp. This
having been done, on removing both the tracing and the transfer-paper, it will be
found that a clear red outline has been conveyed to the surface of the vellum.
At this stage of the work, as nothing dirties more readily than this material, it will
be well to fasten over the surface a clean sheet of paper with a flap cut in it, by
raising up and folding back portions of which, the artist may get to the part of
the surface upon which he may desire to work without exposing any of the rest.
As the effect of the writing on the page gives as it were the key-note for the general
effect of the illuminated ornaments, it will be well to complete the former before
proceeding to the latter.^

If the lines of the writing fixed upon are fine and delicate, they will look best,
and work most freely with Indian ink ; but if they are bold and solid, involving
some extent of black surface, they will present a better appearance if wrought in
lampblack ; the principal difference between the two being that Indian ink is finer,
and, if good, always retains a slight gloss, while lampblack gives a fuller tint, and
dries off quite mat, or with a dead surface, corresponding with that of most other
body-colour tints used in illuminating. Great care must be taken to keep the
writing evenly spaced, upright, and perfectly neat, as it is almost impossible to erase
without spoiling the vellum, and as no beauty of ornament will redeem an untidy
text. If a portion of the writing is to be in red, it should be in pure vermilion ; and
if in gold, it should be highly burnished, as will be hereafter directed. The writing
being satisfactorily completed, the artist may proceed to lay in his ground tints,
generally mixing them with more or less white to give them body and solidity.
Colours prepared with water are best adapted for illumination on vellum ; and those
known as moist colours are to be preferred for this work, as they give out a greater
volume of colour, and possess more tenacity or power of adhering to the surface of
the material on \vhich they are used than the dry colours. Of moist colours there
are two descriptions, viz., solid and liquid ; and of these I give the preference to the
former, as some colours, such as lemon-yellow and smalt, will not keep well in tubes;
added to which, there is waste in using them in this form where only small quan-
tities are required, as the colour cannot be replaced in the tube when once squeezed
out. The tube colours possess, however, the valuable property of being always
clean when a bit of pure colour is required. The solid moist colours are apt to get
dirtied in rapid working, and occasionally mislead the eye which is not quick at
detecting a lowered tint. Mr. Barbe's body-colours, which are of very good quality,
are prepared in powder, combined with a glutinous substance, on moistening which
with water, the tints are fit for application. Messrs. Winsor & Newton's body-
colours are also very excellent. Flatness of tint is best secured by using the first
colour well mixed with body, and put on boldly j this forms the brightest tint ; then
shade with pure transparent colour, and finish off with the high lights.

Very useful models have been prepared by Mr. Barnard, for teaching amateurs

* The experienced niumlnator will generally do his writing before he gets in the outline of his
ornament, and he will frequently dispense with the transferring process altogether; but it would be
by no means safe for a beginnel- to do so.

So THE ART OF ILLUMINATING,

the different modes of shading, &c. They consist of outline plates (the first series
containing the Beatitudes from the Gospel of St. Matthew) partially coloured by
hand. The beginner will find it a very useful exercise to complete a few of these
before trying his hand upon more original works upon vellum. The greatest care
must be taken to have every implement perfectly clean. Experience alone can
teach the artist the value of what are called glazing or transparent colours, such
as the lakes, caraiine, madders, gamboge, &c. Some tints may be used either as
glazing colours or as body-tints, according to their preparation^ and according to the
degree of thickness with which they are applied. As a general principle, all shades
should be painted in transparent colour, all lights in opaque. Reflected lights may
often be best given by scumbling thin body-colour over transparent shade. In order
to prepare the tints for these operations, it may be well to use a little of Newman's
or Miller's preparations with them. The less tints are retouched after the first
appHcation, the more clear and brilliant they are likely to remain. Above all things
never let the paint-brush go near the mouth, and never attempt to correct or retouch
a tint while it is in process of drying, as doing so will infaUibly make it look streaky
and muddy. In all these processes of manipulation, however, practice, good
example, and good tuition, must teach what the minutest directions would fail to
satisfactorily convey. The principal colours having been applied, the next difficulty .
will be to heighten them with gold and silver.

The principal metallic preparations used in illumination may be enumerated as
follows : — gold leaf, gold paper, shell gold, saucer gold, gold paint, silver leaf, shell
silver, and shell aluminium. Of these, the leaves, paper, and paint, are of English,
and the shells and saucers of French manufacture. Occasionally gold and silver
powder and German-metal leaf are employed, though too rarely to make them im-
portant enough to claim general notice.

The first-mentioned preparation of gold — gold leaf — is the pure metal beaten
into very thin leaves, generally 3I inches, 3^ inches, or 3! inches square ; but for
illuminating purposes it should be still smaller — say 2 J inches square, as it is easier
to handle than a larger size. For the same reason it is better to have the leaf
doubly as thick as it is usually beaten. Gold leaf is sold in " books," each of which
contains twenty-five gold " leaves," and, for ordinary and general purposes, it is by
far the best and most useful metallic preparation ; but the difficulty of handling and
laying it on deters amateurs from employing it, and it is difficult in writing to furnish
a practical description of the modus operandi. The following is the usual mode : —

" Carefully open the book of gold, and if in so doing you disturb the leaf, gently
blow it down flat again. If a whole leaf be required, take a rounded ' tip,' and
quietly so place it on the leaf that the top of the tip be close to the edge of the leaf.
In so doing, the sides of the tip will be brought down upon the side edges of the
leaf, which then can be securely taken up and placed where required. If a small
piece of gold leaf only be wanted, cautiously take up a leaf from the book by passing
a ' gilder's knife ' underneath, and place it on a ' gilder's cushion; ' ^ lay it flat with
the knife, with which then cut the piece of the size required. If when you have
laid gold leaf down with the tip, it be wrinkly, blow it down flat."

' Both the cushion and tip will be described in detail inider the head of Oil-gilding.

THE ART OF ILLUMINATING. ' 8i.

The " gilder's tip " spoken of in the above extract is a very thin camel-hair brush,
and for unskilled hands a semicircular tip is to be preferred to one of the ordinary
form ; as with it a leaf of gold may be firmly laid hold of, balanced, adjusted, and
placed, without needing any particular knack. For long narrow pieces of gold, the
ordinary gilder's tip is probably the best.

Gold paper consists of leaves of gold placed upon thin paper, a sheet of which,
measuring about 19 inches by i2| inches, requires one book of gold. The mat or
dead gold is most frequently used in illumination ; but, when required, the bright or
burnished gold can be procured. Gold paper is usually plain at the back, and
when used, is required to be gummed on to the work ; but it is far better to have it
prepared on the back with a mixture of clear glue, sugar, &c., which can be laid on
evenly and thinly, and yet is very strong. Paper thus prepared needs only to have
a wet flat camel-hair brush passed over the back ; it can then be laid down, and will
adhere very firmly. In laying down gold paper, it is well to place a piece of white
glazed paper on its face, then firmly to pass over it the edge of a flat rule, in order
to press down all inequalities and render the surface perfectly smooth.

Shell gold is^gold powder mixed up and placed in mussel-shells for use. It is
removed from the shell by the application of water, like moist colours, and is
adapted for small work and fine lines, in which latter case a quill or reed pen will be
found useful. When the work is dry, the gold can be brightened with a burnisher.
Saucer gold only differs from shell gold in being placed in china saucers instead
of shells.

(jold paint is a preparation of bronze, in imitation of gold, and is usually sold
in two bottles, one of powder and the other of liquid ; which two ingredients, when
mixed together, form the " paint," the use of which I do not recommend, as in
course of time it turns black. The same objection unfortunately applies more or
less, also, to the preparations of silver, which, however, are still occasionally used
in illumination.

Silver leaf is made in the same manner as gold leaf, and the remarks made in
reference to that are generally applicable to silver leaf.

Shell silver is not really silver, but an amalgam of tin and mercury prepared and
placed in mussel-shells, and used with water in the same way as gold shells.

Shell aluminium is a preparation of aluminium placed in mussel-shells for use,
and is warranted to keep its colour without tarnishing. If this be the case, it will
form a valuable addition to the list of materials for illumination, as it will be the
only white metal known that can be depended upon for not tarnishing. The pre-
paration is at present a new one, but bids fair to be very serviceable.

Water-mat gold size is a preparation for laying down gold leaf, /. ^., causing it
to adhere to a given surface. The mode of using it is as follows : — Take a small
brush saturated with water, and thoroughly charge it with the size. With the brush
so charged, trace out the required form or pattern, and upon this lay the gold leaf,
pressing it lightly down with cotton-wool. When all is dry, gently rub off" the super-
fluous gold with cotton-wool.

" Burnish gold size " is a preparation for laying down the gold leaf that is in-
tended afterwards to be Ijurnished (/. c, polished with a tooth or agate burnisher).

82 THE ART OF ILLUMINATING.

That prepared by Messrs. Winsor and Newton niay be used as follows : — Place the
bottle in warm water to dissolve its contents, which, however, must not be allowed
to get hot, but merely be made liquid. Stir up the preparation with a hogs-hair
brushj which then thoroughly charge with the mixture \ with it trace out the pattern
required to be burnished, then let the work dry. When quite dry, let the surface
of the pattern be wetted with clean cold water, and on it (while damp) place the
gold leaf. Let all get perfectly dry, and then burnish as required. When a very
bright surface is wanted, two coats of the size should be used ; the second being
put on after the first is dry.

The " raising preparation " made by the same firm, is adapted for raising the
surface of the work, so as to obtain relief, and is particularly required for imitating
rich MSS. of the 14th and 15th centuries. It is used as follows : — Place the bottle
in hot water, and when its contents are dissolved, stir it well up with a small hogs-
hair brush, then fully charge it, draw out the form intended to be raised, and de-
posit the " raising " on the surface. If the height thus attained be not sufficient,
wait till the preparation is dry, and go over it again, and so on until you gain the
height you require, when it must be allowed to become quite hard ; then go over it
with the v/ater-mat gold size, and while this is wet put on the . gold ; press gently
down with cotton-wool, and when dry brush off the superfluous gold with cotton-
wool ; when putting on the " raising," take care to keep the surface level, unless it
may be required to be holloAved or indented.

Mr. Barnard has also prepared a gold size and raising preparation, adapted for
laying gold on vellum or paper, which answers well both for mat and burnish
gilding. The mode of using it is as follows : — Wash a little of the gold size off with a
brush dipped in water, using it thinly for the flat parts of your design, and in greater
body for that portion of the drawing which you wish to appear raised ; after allowing
it to remain for a few minutes, till nearly dry, apply the gold, and press it down with
a i^iece of cotton-wool. It must now remain untouched for about an hour, when
the superfluous gold may be removed by means of the wool, and in case of defect,
the gold size and gold must be again applied. ' Preparations of a somewhat similar
nature are sold by Messrs. Rowney, Newman, and other artists' colourmen.^

Very pretty effects maybe obtained by partial burnishing of the gold in patterns,
and dotting it over with the point of the sharp burnisher in indentations, arranged
in geometrical fonns. The best manuscripts of the Edwardian period were often
highly wrought after thi? fashion.

When finished, it is scarcely necessary to recommend that the vellum sheet
should be either put carefully away until enough of others corresponding with it
are done to make up a volume, or should be glazed so as to protect its surface.
One dirty or greasy finger laid upon it, and the effect of much beautiful work, which
may have taken weeks to elaborate, is fatally marred.

* The amateur may, of course, prepare mordants of different degrees of tenacity and body for
his own use, by the employment, and various combinations, of leather and parchment size, isinglass,
red lead, gum arabic, sugar, honey, glycerine, borax, bol ammoniac, glaire, and similar substances ;
but his time will be more profitably spent in improving himself in design than it could be (nowadays)
in experimenting on the "materia technica " of art.

THE ART OF ILLUMINATING. 83

All the above instructions apply as well for working on paper or cardboard as
on vellum. The amateur Avho has once succeeded on vellum, is not likely to take
again to the humbler practice of working on the less noble materials, which, how-
ever, will always be exceedingly useful for practising and sketching upon. I have
occasionally seen printed volumes gracefully illustrated by hand with borders, and
with elegant inventions, in the form of head and tail pieces, insertions, &c., appli-
cable to the subject of the volume. Many of the works of old English authors are
peculiarly suited for this class of embellishment. How beautiful might not a
Walton's *' Angler" or a Bunyan's ''Pilgrim's Progress" be made if appropriately
enriched in this style !

Tracing-paper, and the facilities it offers to those little gifted with talents for
drawing, I have already noticed. It remains, however, to observe, that it possesses
an additional practical convenience in being ready for taking colour, either with oil,
water, or varnish, as vehicles, without the previous application of any special
preparation. Hence it may be fastened up when completed, either by pasting as
ordinary paper, by gluing, if for attachment to wood, or by paying over the back
with boiled oil and copal varnish, or with white lead ground in oil with some
litharge, and then pressing do^vn until it may be made to lie perfectly flat and
adhere to any surface previously painted in oil-colour. Being very thin, its edges
will scarcely show at all, even if applied to the middle of a flat panel \ but, to make
sure, it is always well to run a line with a full brush of thick colour, either in
oil or distemper, over the edge, extending for one half of its width upon the tracing-
paper, and for the other half upon the surface to which it may have been applied.

Of the remaining materials on which illumination for the decoration, not of
books but of apartments, may be readily executed, canvas, stone, metal, and wood,
are generally wrought upon by the ordinary processes of oil-painting \ while plaster,
especially in the form of ceilings, is more frequently treated by means of distemper-
painting. I propose, therefore, to give, firstly, some general directions as to setting
out work, &c., applicable to both methods ; secondly, a notice of the processes
generally required for oil-colour illumination ; thirdly, a brief description of the
mode of working in distemper; and fourthly, to wind up with some instructions
as to the application of varnish which may be employed to heighten and preserve
illumination executed by either of the above methods.

The operation of setting out lines upon walls or other surfaces is by no
means easy. It involves care and judgment, a quick eye, and a very steady
hand. It is the indispensable preliminary before ornamental-work or illumina-
tion can be executed, as it can alone correctly give the forms of panels, bor-
ders, &c., for which cartoons may have to be prepared. Lines may be either
drawn with pencil, or prepared charcoal or chalk, or else struck by means of a ^
chalked string. For lines which are vertical, a weight called a plumb-bob must be
attached to one end of the string. The best shape for this is that of half an ^gg.,
as the flat side will then lie close to the wall. Two persons are required in setting
out these lines, — one working above and the other below. The one at the top
matks the points at the distance each line is required to be from others. The string
being chalked either black or white, — according as the line has to show upon a

G 2

84 THE ART OF ILLUMINATING.

light or dark ground, — he holds it to one of the points, and lets fall the weighted
end, which, when quite steady, the person who is below strains tight, and raising
the string between his finger and thumb in the middle, lets it fall back sharply on
the wall. The result, if carefully executed, is a perfectly straight and vertical line.
The horizontal lines require to be drawn with a straight-edge or ruler, and may be
either set out at a true right angle to the vertical lines geometrically by the inter-
section of arcs of circles, or by a large square, or may be defined, irrespectively of
mathematical correctness, by measuring up or down from a ceiling or floor line.
The distances apart are as before measured out, but in long lines must be marked
as many times as the length of the straight-edge may require. This being set at
each end to the points marked, the line is drawn along it. Circles and curved lines
may be struck from their proper centres with large wooden compasses, one leg
carrying a pencil. Drawing lines with the brush requires great practice. A straight-
edge is placed upon the chalk lines, with the edge next the line slightly raised, and
the brush, well filled with colour, drawn along it, just touching the wall, the pressure
being never increased, and the bmsh refilled whenever it is near failing ; but great
care must be taken that it be not too full, as in that case it will be apt to blotch
the line, or drop the colour upon the lower portions of the wall. Drawing lines in
colour overhead upon a ceiling is even more difiicult, and is beyond the capabilities
of most amateurs.

The patterns of ornament are executed either by means of stencils cut in oiled
paper, according to the method which will be next described, or else by pounces,
which are the full-sized drawings pricked along all the lines with a needle upon a
flat cushion ; powdered charcoal, tied up in a cotton bag, is then dabbed upon the
paper which has been set up on the wall, or else the back is rubbed over with
drawing-charcoal and brushed well with a flat brush, like a stone brush. In both
cases the result is that the dust passes on to the walls through the pricked holes,
and forms are thus sufficiently indicated to the painter.

StenciUing is a process by which colour is applied through interstices cut in a
prepared paper, by dabbing with a brush. The design to be stencilled is drawn
upon paper which has been soaked with linseed oil and well dried. The pattern
is then cut out with a sharp knife upon a sheet of glass, care being taken to leave
such connections as will keep the stencil together. The next tint is then to be
laid on in the same manner, and so on till the darkest tint is done, each tint being
allowed to dry before a second is applied.

I do not purpose dwelling in detail on the preparation, or "bringing forward,"
as it is called, of surfaces to receive oil-colour j since, for such mechanical work, it
will be always well to employ a good house-painter. I may observe, however, that
the first operation, where the surface is absorbent, is to stop the suction, either by
a plentiful application of boiled oil alone, boiled oil and red lead, or size. Several*
successive coats of paint should then be applied, and in order to obtain smooth-
ness, the surface of each should be well rubbed down. The last coat should be
mixed with turpentine, and no oil, in order to kill the gloss, or, as it is termed,
to " flat " the surface. For most decoration and illumination the work should be
brought forward in white, as, by shining partially through most of the pigments

THE ART OF ILLUMINATING, 8$

ultimately applied, it will greatly add to their brilliancy. Zinc white will stand
much better than white lead. Messrs. Roberson, of Long Acre, prepare an
excellent wax medium, which dries with a perfectly dead encaustic surface, and
answers admirably for mural-painting of all kinds. I caused it to be employed for
all the decoration executed under my direction at the Sydenham Crystal Palace.
Miller's glass medium will also be found very useful to artists and amateurs. In
laying on all ground tints, great care should be taken to keep them flat ; and the
less, as a general rule, tints are mixed, worked over and over, and messed about,
the brighter they will be. The principal colours having dried, the setting out of
the lettering, (Sec, may be proceeded with ; the following directions being duly
attended to.

The Setting-out of Letters}

In regard to the proportion of Roman capital letters, it may be taken as a
general rule, that the whole of the letters, with the exception of S, J, I, F, M, and
N, are formed in squares. The top and bottom of the letters should project tlie
width of the thick line. The letters I and J are formed in a vertical parallelogram,
half the width of the square ; the letters M and N in a horizontal parallelogram,
one-third larger than the square. The letters A, B, E, F, H, X, and Y, are either
divided, or have projections from the middle. This rule may be varied, and the
division placed nearer the top than the base of the square. Capitals in the same
word should have a space equal to half a square between them ; at the beginning
of a word, a whole square, and between the divisions of a sentence two squares
should be left.

This is the general rule for the proportions of the letters ; but they may be
made longer or wider, as may be deemed expedient.

The small letters are half the size of the capitals ; the long lines of the letters
b, d, f, h, k, and I, are the same height as the capitals ; the tails of j, p, q, and y,
descending in like proportion. The letter s is founded on the form of two circles,
at a tangent to each other. These rules are applicable to sloping as well as to
upright letters. In italic letters it is usual to make the capitals three times the
height of the smaller letters, and the long strokes of the small letters nearly equal
to the capitals.

The letters having been duly set out, and painted on the walls, the amateur
must next either himself encounter, or employ some experienced hand to overcome,
the technical difficulties of successfully gilding those portions of his work he may
desire to remain in gold. The following directions may assist him ; but he is not
likely to succeed until practice shall have given him considerable dexterity and
confidence : —

Gilding for Walls, 6^^.

The implements with which the gilder should provide himself are not numerous,
nor are they expensive, as they consist merely of a cushion of particular form, a
knife for cutting the gold leaf, a tip for transferring it, and a cotton ball or pad for

* This information is principally derived from Nathaniel WhittoQk's "Decorative Painter's and
Glazier's Guide,"

86 THE ART OF ILLUMINATING.

pressing it down ; these and a few brushes are all the requisites, with the addition
of an agate burnisher when burnish gilding is desired.

The cushion is a species of palette made of wood, about nine by six inches,
having on the upper surface a covering of leather stuifed with wool, and on the
under side a loose band, through which the thumb being passed, the cushion is
kept firmly resting on the left hand. To prevent the gold flying off (for, being
extremely light, this veiy readily takes place), a margin of parchment is fixed on
the edge of the cushion, rising about three inches, and enclosing it on three sides.
The knife very much resembles a palette-knife, the blade is about four inches long
and half an inch wide, perfectly straight, and cutting on one edge only.

The "tip" is the brush with which the gold leaf is applied. It is formed by
placing a Hne of badger-hair between two thin pieces of cardboard, and is generally
about three inches wide. The " dabber " is merely a pinch of cotton-wool, lightly
tied up in a piece of very soft rag, or, what is better, the thin silk called Persian.
It is often used without covering, but is then very apt to take up the uncovered
gold-size, and %o to soil the leaf already laid down. Camel-hair brushes are useful
for intricate parts, and for cleaning off the superfluous gold a long-haired brush,
called a " softener," is requisite.

There should be also at hand a small stone and muUer (these are also made in
glass, which are cleaner) for grinding up the oil and gold-size.

The operator, having stocked himself with the above tools, may now proceed
to lay the gold leaf upon the work he desires to gild. There are tvv^o methods of
doing this, known in the trade as " Oil-gilding " and " Water-gilding ; " .and so
called from the composition of the size which serves as a vehicle for making
the gold leaf adhere to the work.

The following is the usual process in oil-gilding :— This method costs less and will wear much
lietter than water-gilding, which will be presently described ; but has not its delicate appearance
and finish, nor can it be burnished or brightened up. Though the oil gold-size can always
be purchased of good quality, it may be well to describe the fat oil of which it is principally
composed.

Linseed oil, in any quantity, is exposed during the summer in the open air, but as much away
from dust as possible, for about two months, during which time it must be often stirred, and it will
become as thick as treacle. It is a good practice to pour into the pot a quantity of water, so that
the oil may be lifted from the bottom of it, as all the impurities of the oil sink into the water, and
do not again mix when it is stirred. When of the consistency above mentioned, the oil is separated
from the water, and being put into a bottle, is subjected to heat till it becomes fluid again, when
all remaining impurities will sink, and the oil, being carefully poured off from the sediment, forms
what is termed * ' fat oil. " The gilder commences by priming the work, should it not have been
painted, using for the purpose a small portion of yellow ochre and vennilion, mixed with drying
oil. When this is quite dry, a coat of the oil gold-size, compounded with the fat oil just described,
japanners' gold-size, and yellow ochre, is laid on, and when this is perfectly dr>', a second should be
given, or even a third. A superior finish is produced by going over the work, before using the size,
with Dutch rushes or fish-skin, which gives a finer surface to it. After the last coat of size is
applied, the work must lie left for about a day, to set, taking care to keep it from dust ; and the
proper state for receiving the gold leaf is known by touching the size with the finger, when it should
be just "tacky," that is adhesive, without leaving the ground on which it has been laid.

The gilder then, taking on his left hand his cushion, transfers to it the gold leaves from the
books in which they are purchased. This is not very easy to a beginner, as the gold cannot be

THE ART OF ILLUMINATING.

'-1

touched except by the knife. Gilders manage it by breathing under the leaf in the direction it is
desired to send it, and flatten it on the cushion by the same gentle blowing or breathing. It is now
cut to the required shape, and applied to the sized surfaces by means of the tip, which, if drawn
across the hair or face each time it is used, will slightly adhere to the gold. The whole leaves are
sometimes transferred from the books to the work at once ; and when there is much flat space it
facilitates the process. As the leaves are laid on the size, they are pressed gently down with the
cotton ball, or in sunken parts with camel-hair brushes j and when perfectly dry, the loose leaf is
removed by gently brushing over the woi-k with the softener, when, if there should be found any
places ungilt, such spots are touched with japanners' gold-size, and the leaf applied as before. The
process of oil-gilding is then complete.

Water or buniish-gilding differs from the former in the use of parchment instead of oil size, and
has received its name from being moistened with water in rendering the size adhesive, and also from
• its fitness for burnishing. Its superior beauty, however, is balanced by its being less durable than
oil-gilding, and, unlike the latter, unfit to be exposed to damp air ; it is therefore only used for
indoor work or ornamentation. The parchment size is made by boiling down slips of parchment or
cuttings of glovers' leather, till a strong jelly be formed, the proportions being one pound of cuttings
to six quarts of water, which must be boiled till it shrinks to two quarts. While hot, the liquid
should be strained through flannel ; and when cold, the jelly required will be fit for use.

The work to be gilded will require several coats of composition : the first, or priming coat, is
made of size thinned with water, and a little whiting ; with this the work is brushed over, using a
thicker mixture when there are defects which need to be stopped. Successive coats are then laid on,
to the number of seven or eight, and the last, being moistened with water, is worked over and
smoothed on the plain parts with Dutch rushes. After this is completed, a coating is laid on, com-
posed of bol ammoniac I pound, black lead 2 ounces, ground up on the stone witli 2 ounces of
olive oil. This is one out of many receipts ; all, however, are diluted for use with parchment size,
warmed up with two-thirds water, and forming what is called water gold-size. Two coats of this
should be laid on ; the part about to be burnished should then be again rubbed with a soft cloth
till quite even, and care taken that each coat be perfectly dry before the subsequent one be laid on.
The work is now moistened in successive portions with a camel-hair brush and water, and while
moist covered with gold leaf in precisely the same manner as described in the directions for oil-
gilding, great caution being observed in order to avoid wetting the leaf already laid down, as a
discoloration would be the result. The work is now left for about four-and-twenty hours, when
the parts which are to be burnished may be tried in two or three places. Care should be taken not
to let the work get too dry, as in that case it would require more burnishing, and yet not give a good
result. This state is known by its polishing slowly, and if it be too wet it will peel off; but should
the places where the trials are made all polish quickly and evenly, the work may then be
finished ; for which purpose agates cut in proper forms and set into handles, are sold at the artists'
colour-shops. •

* Japanners' gilding is a branch of oil-gilding,
the size or ground being made with i pound of
linseed oil, to which, while boiling, is added
gradually 4 ounces of gum animi in powder,
the whole being stirred until the gum is com-
pletely dissolved, and kept boiling till the
mixture is of a thick consistence, in which
state it should be strained through a thick
flannel, and stored in a wide-mouthed stop-
pered bottle. Vermilion is ground up with the
size before it is applied, to render it opaque ;
and if it does not leave the brush freely, it
should be thinned with oil of turpentine.

The gold powder may be either real gold, or
what is called Dutch metal, or imitation gold.

Gold powder is produced by grinding the leaf
gold with pure honey on the stone till it is
perfectly reduced to powder, and afterwards
dissolving the mixture in water till the honey
is completely removed, and for this several
waters are necessary ; the water is then poured
off, and the powder dried. If this gold be
mixed up with weak gimi-water and spread
upon cockle-shells, it is then called shell-gold,
which is used in drawings only.

The Dutch gold powder is made by reducing
the Dutch leaf gold by exactly the same pro-
cess ; and if well protected by varnishing, its
appearance is little inferior to the genuine
metal. There is another method of procuring

88

THE ART OF ILLUMINATING,

The gilding satisfactorily accomplished, the artist or amateur has only to add
the finishing tints and touches to his work, and then either to leave it alone or to
varnish it, in accordance with the directions which will be given presently. If the
work has been executed on canvas, it will remain only to apply it to the surface for
which it may have been destined. This may be done by painting that surface
with thick white lead, in two or three coats, and by also similarly painting the back
of the canvas. The latter being then pressed evenly down upon the former, while
the white lead upon both is still tacky, and left for a few days, will be found to
have attached itself with the greatest tenacity. Scrolls and panels cut out of zinc
sheets may be painted upon just as though they were cut out of canvas, and may
be fixed in their places by nails or screws. In illuminating on wood, pretty effects
may be obtained by varnishing partially with transparent colours, such as the lakes,
umber, Prussian blue, burnt sienna, &c., so as to allow the grain of the wood to
show through, — restricting the use of opaque colour and gilding to a few brilliant
points.

Distempering is a method of colouring walls and ceilings, in which powder
colour, ground up in water, and mixed with sufficient size to fix the colour, is used
instead of paint made with oil. The most simple employment of distemper is in
whitening ceilings, but it is also very much used in theatrical decoration and
scene-painting ; the rooms are sometimes so ornamented, the process being much
less expensive than oil-painting. The foundation of all the colours is whiting,
which, having been set to soak in water, and break up of itself, is (when the top
water is poured off) in a fit state for use ; common double size is then added, with
as much of the colour as will make the desired tint ; but as this, when dry, will be

gokl powder, which is by precipitating grain
gold into powder by means of aqua regia,
which is made by dissolving four parts of pure
spirit of nitre and one part of sal ammoniac in
powder. This process was (as has been already
stated) well known to the medireval illumi-
nators. In 4 ounces of this compound, \ an
ounce of grain gold is dissolved under the
action of a slight heat ; a solution of green
vitriol, consisting of copperas i dram, water i
ounce, being gradually added. When the pre-
cipitation has ceased, the gold powder must
be carefully washed and dried, and will be
found to be more brilliant than that made from
leaf gold. The use of japanners' gold-size
is very similar to oil-gilding, and is equally
simple. If the material to be gilded is brought
to a smooth and clean face, the size may be
laid on at once without other preparation ;
using great care, however, not to touch any
part but what you wish to gild, as the gold will
adhere wherever there is size. Priming with a
mixture of chalk and size is sometimes used for
a first coat, but not by the best japanners, as

the work is liable to chip off; no material
should therefore be japanned which cannot be
made smooth. For hard or close-grained wood,
metal, leather, or paper, one or two coats of
varnish will answer all requirements ; very
great care being observed that each coat of
varnish be perfectly dry and hard before it
is again touched. It is a good practice to allow
the work to stand a day or two between the
applications ; then the japanners' gold-size may
be added, and touching with the finger as
before described will indicate the proper state
for applying the gold, whether in leaf or
powder. Either may be employed ; but in the
case of colours being intermixed and sub-
sequently vaniished, the powder is usually
adopted ; it is easily laid on by means of a
camel-hair brush, the work being set aside to
get thoroughly dry, when the superfluous metal
is removed with a soft brush. In case more
size should have been prepared than is needed,
the remainder, if water be poured over it, will
keep for future use.

THE ART OF ILLUMINATING,

89

many shades lighter than it appears when wet, trials should be made on paper, and
dried by the fire till the colour required be attained. A gentle heat is required for
melting the size.. Old walls are prepared for distemper by being scraped and
cleaned, and a coat of '•' clearcole " given to them. This is merely thin size and
water with a little whiting : it serves to wash and smooth the walls and stop
suction. Should there be any cracks or holes, a thick paste of size-water and
whiting is laid in them with a palette-knife, and, when dry, smoothed down with
pumice-stone, and another coat of clearcole given, when the wall is in a proper
state to receive the ground tint : for new walls one coat of clearcole is sufficient.
If it is intended to lay on lines of various colours, the wall is, previous to the
laying-on of the ground tint, set out as previously described ; and the appropriate
colours put on in succession, according to the design to be followed. All the
colours required should be ground up, and kept ready prepared in galley-pots well
covered over, so as to be at hand at once. The colour should be of the consistency
of thick cream, and should run from the brush on being raised from the pot in one
thread ; if it run in several, it is too thin. If too thick, add more size and water ; if
too thin, more whiting. The pots used are the common red paint-pots.

VARNISHING.

Varnish is a solution of resin in oil or spirits of wine, '

Surfaces which are to be varnished should be of the greatest smoothness and polish which it is
possible to attain. Dark colours are best calculated for varnishing ; the lighter colours, such as
sky-blue, apple-green, rose-colour, delicate yellow, &c., will not bear varnishing so well, and in
spite of the greatest care are liable to get dirty.

The best preparation for stopping suction in absorbent surfaces, and so rendering them fit to
take varnish, is made of isinglass or parchment size ; for the darker colours it may be made of
common clear glue. Four or five coats will be necessary for the brighter colours ; two or three will
be sufficient for the darker ones. Great care must be taken not to wash up water or distemper
colours in laying on the first coat, nor to lay on a second coat before the first is perfectly dry ; nor
must the varnishing be proceeded with before the last coat of size is thoroughly dry. Varnish may
be applied on surfaces brought forward in oil without any special preparation, provided the oil has
become thoroughly dry and hard.

This process sei-ves both to enhance and preserve the beauty of the colours, and in some degree
to counteract the destructive influence of the atmosphere and of insects.

Varnishes suitable for the work in hand, such as clear copal spirit varnish, oil copal varnish,
white hard varnish, &c., may be procured from any one who supplies drawing materials. The var-
nishing itself requires some little care. It should be performed in a place perfectly free from dust,
in a bold manner with large brushes, steadily, rapidly, and uniformly, not returning too frequently
to the same spot, more especially when using spirit varnish, which loses its fluidity much sooner
than oil varnish. Whichever varnish is used, it should be very thin : if spirit varnish, the room
must be of a moderate temperature ; for if too cold, the varnishing is apt to be rough, white, and
unequal ; if too hot, it is liable to have air-bladders, and to crumble and spoil. Oil varnishing may
be done in a room of warmer temperature. A second coat of varnish must on no account be laid

* The superiority of the Chinese and Ja-
panese varnishing is chiefly owing to the
excellence of a particular species of resin
found in China and Japan, The varnishes
made with oil are longer drying than those
made with spirits of wine, but are of greater

durability. The spirits of wine should be
highly rectified : if oil is used, it should be
linseed. It is safer to purchase the varnish
ready prepared than to attempt the making of
it, as the solution of resin, particularly in oil,
is somewhat dangerous.

90 THE ART OF ILLUMINATING.

on before the first coat is quite dry. If the work is to be polished, the spirit varnish must be
applied from five to eight times, oil varnish three or four ; but if the work is not to be polished,
then four coats of the former and two of the latter will generally be found sufficient.

When thoroughly dry, the face of the varnish may be polished with pumice-stone, tripoli,
water, and sweet oil. If it be an oil varnish, procure some of the finest pulverized pumice-stone,
and mix it with water to about the consistence of cream ; with a piece of linen rag dipped in this
mixture rub the work till all inequalities disappear, and the surface is as smooth as glass ; then dry
it with a cloth, and polish once more with tripoli and sweet oil ; then dry it with a piece of soft
linen, rub it with starch reduced to a fine powder, and finish with a clean soft linen cloth, until the
varnish assumes a dazzling appearance. If it is a spirit varnish, omit the pumice-stone, and begin
with the tripoli and water ; after this use the tripoli and sweet oil, and finish as before described
for the oil varnish.

The difference is so striking between the polished and unpolished surfaces, as to amply repay
the additional trouble required in the polishing. The polishing powders must be kept in thoroughly
clean vessels, a single grain of sand being sufficient to spoil the polish.

M. DIGBY WYATT.

LIST OF THE PLATES.

The Frontispiece is adapted from Add. MS. 17,341,
Museum.

and Re£j. I. D. I. of the British

6th CENTURY (PL i). — The mamiscript (Bodleian, No. 93) from which this interesting and
early alphabet has been taken, is one formerly in Lord Hatton's possession. It is preserved in the
Bodleian Library with other manuscripts formerly belonging to the same proprietor. Although possess-
ing no great claims to notice as a work of art, since it contains no miniatures, this precious copy of the
Gospels may well take precedence of all others in this country, with the exception of the companion
set preserved in the library of Corpus Christi, Cambridge ; since Wanley, one of the most
industrious and cautious students of palceography, has not hesitated to regard them as the identical
copies once preserved at St. Augustine's Monastery, in Kent, and valued through long ages as
having been the property of the great missionary. To such a supposition the character of the text,
and many very ancient inscriptions contained in the work, give at least plausibility. Be this as it
may, however, there can be no question that Mr. Westwood is perfectly justified in placing it, as he
has done, in a recent article in the "Archaeological Journal " (together with the Cottonian MS,
Vespasian A i, from which our Pis. 3 and 4, " 7th Century," have been taken), in that very rare
class, of which about six authentic specimens only are known ; and which he regards as having
issued from a Scriptorium founded in this country by the immediate followers of St. Augustine.
From that source emanated, he considers, " some of the most beautiful manuscripts, wi'itten in the
purest uncial or rustic capitals, but decorated with initials in the Anglo-Saxon or Irish style."
Were it not for such a combination, it would be exceedingly difficult to recognize the possibility that
several manuscripts, which we may nationally be most proud to claim, qould have been written and
illuminated in this country.

6th CENTURY (PI. 2).— All the beautiful specimens shown on this Plate have been taken
from the Golden Greek Canons of Eusebius, in the British Museum (Add. MSS., No. 5>m)>
one of the most important relics of the decoration of the school of Justinian the Great which time
has spared to us. {See page 9.) P'rom its breadth of style and bold treatment of colour,
this MS. furnishes an excellent model for illuminators or decorators to study, reproduce, and
improve upon.

7th CENTURY (PI. 3).— The Cottonian manuscript (Vesp. A i) suppUes the material for this
Plate. It contains the Roman Psalter, with an Anglo-Saxon interlineal translation. I have dra\vn
attention to the peculiar class to which this manuscript belongs at page 18.

7th CENTURY (PI. 4). — This Plate gives various details from the same source which
furnished those for the preceding one. The principal specimen, Fig. 9, is a portion of a triumphal
arch (recto 31), beneath which David is represented seated, and playing on the lyre. He is sur-
rounded by attendants rejoicing, and blowing horns and trumpets. The execution of this subject,
which is the most important illumination in the volume, is quite antique in character ; the colours
being applied with a free brush in a style altogether differing from the fine pen-work, not only of

92 THE ART OF ILLUMINATING.

the rest of the vohime, but even of the archway which forms the framing to the subject. Small
figures recur in various headings, but they are all drawn in a more minute, laboured, and ignorant style
than those of the illumination of King David. Gold, silver, and the beautiful purple stain abound
throughout the volume, which is written in classical majuscule letters throughout. The Hibernian
features of surrounding the initial letters and ornaments with red dots, and using a spiral, the eye
of which expands into a triple whorl, abound throughout.

7th CENTURY (PI. 5).— The Figures 8 and 12 of this Plate are also from the Cottonian
Vesp. A I. All the rest have been selected from, probably, the most interesting manuscript in
existence. It is preserved in the same series (the Cottonian) under the title of Nero, D IV. and is
best known as St. Cuthbert's Gospels. This manuscript, having been alluded to at page 15, need
not be now further dwelt on.

7th CENTURY (PI. 6).— All from the Durham Book. Nero, D IV.

8th CENTURY (PI. 7) presents us with a complete alphabet, and various ornamental initials -
made up from manuscripts, executed on the Continent at a period immediately anterior to the age
of Charlemagne.

8th CENTURY (PI. 8). — Count Bastard, in his magnificent work, has given an important
collection of examples of the early Spanish, or Visigothic characters, from a book of the Sacraments
of the Church, preserved in the Imperial Library of Paris ; and from his facsimiles the materials
for this Plate have been selected.

8th CENTURY (PI. 9).— The same source (Count Bastard's work) supplies us with the subjects
engraved on this and on the following seven Plates. Those on the Plate now under notice, and on
that which succeeds it, were taken by Count Bastard from a treatise on Medicine, in the National
Library of France, under the No. 626. It includes the works of Oribasius, Alexander of Tralles,
and Dioscorides, and was formerly preserved in the chapter-house of Notre Dame, at Chartres.

8th CENTURY (PI. 10). — These letters scarcely yet display the elegance or magnificence of
the true Caroline character which we reach in

8th CENTURY (PI. 11).— The initials shown on this Plate afford a good idea of the increasing
attention bestowed on beauty of form, coupled with that imperial magnificence which the use of
gold lettering on a purple ground could not fail to insure. They are derived from a magnificent
lectionaiy, containing the Epistles and Gospels of the year, now in the Imperial Library at Paris —
" Ancien Fonds Latin, Supplement, No. 688."

8th CENTURY (PI. 12) gives further illustrations of Carlovingi5.n splendour, from the same
source as those shown on the preceding Plate.

9th CENTURY (PI. 13).— From the Coronation Book of the Anglo-Saxon Kings. Cott. Tib.
A 2. (6V'^ note, page 21.)

9th CENTURY (PI. 14).— Figures i, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, are taken from the Bible of Louis le
Debonnaire, son and successor of Charlemagne ; and 7 and 8 are from the Gospels, once highly
prized by Fran9ois II. of France. [Sec page 26.)

9th CENTURY (PI. 15).— Figures 3, 4, 5, are from the Bible of Charles le Chauve, or Bald,
one of the grandsons of Charlemagne ; and Figures I, 2, 6, 7, 8, from the Gospels of Lothaire.
Both of these manuscripts are in the Imperial Library of France. {See page 26. )

9th CENTURY (PI. 16).— Figures i, 2, 3, and 5, are from the *' Sacramentaire " of Metz;
and Figures 4, 6, and 7, from the Gospels of Mans. {See page 26. )

9th CENTURY (PI. 17).— Figures i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 8, are from the Bible of Charles the
Bald, to which we have already alluded ; and Figure 7 is from the Gospels of Lothaire. {See
page 26.)

9th CENTURY (PI. 18).— For this and the following Plate we are indebted to the magnificent
Latin Bible of the British Museum collection, known as Add. MSS., No. 10,546.

LIST OF THE PLATES, 93

9th CENTURY (PI. 19). — Tliese letters, and the ornaments Avhich decorate them, are no less
agreeable in design both as regards colour and form, than those upon the preceding Plate from the
same source.

loth CENTURY (PL 20).— From the Fragments of Charles the Bald's Bible. liarl. 7,551.

loth CENTURY (PI. 21). — These initials are all derived from French manuscripts, and
exhibit, more especially in the foliated portions of the letter Q at the lower left-hand corner of the
Plate, a rapid approximation towards the style of ornament so general and popular during the
greater part of the 12th century.

lOth CENTURY (PI. 22). — These borders, which are further develoi3ments of the principle of
foUation noted in the last Plate, have all been taken from the very remarkable Bible of St. Martial
of Limoges, preserved in the Imperial Library of France. {See page 27. )

loth CENTURY (PI. 23).— All from the Gospels of Canute. Reg. L D. G. A noble
specimen of Winchester (Hyde Abbey) work. (6V<f page 21.)

nth CENTURY (PI. 24).— Nos. i, 2, and 3, from Harl. 76; Nos. 4 and 5 from Egerton, 608.

nth CENTURY (PI. 25).— From the British Museum MS8., Harleian collection. No. 7,183;
consisting of a selection of passages in Latin from the New Testament, exhibits a clearly transitional
style of ornament from the Anglo-Saxon, to that which is generally known in architecture as pure
Romanesque. The intricate interlacings of the former style are still retained ; but a distinct
recognition of the principle of foliation derived rather direct from nature than through the antique,
is also evidenced. The colours are inharmonious, and the work is apparently German.

nth CENTURY (PI. 26) is from the same MSS. as the previous Plate.

nth CENTURY (PI. 27). — These letters, equally eccentric in form and colour, are derived
from the peculiar "Evangelaire of Mont Majour," preserved in the Imperial Library at Paris.
They have been figured by Count Bastard.

1 2th CENTURY (PI. 28). — We now arrive at that graceful class of lettering, which, under a
yet more perfect form, attained to such remarkable perfection during the 13th century. Our
alphabets have been selected from the Harleian MSS., No. 2,8<X), which contains in three large
folio volumes a series of lives of Saints for the whole year. The volume formerly belonged to the
Monastery of St. Mary and St. Nicholas, at Arnstein, in the diocese of Treves. The initial letters
throughout are for the most part executed in red, with the grounds of the scroll-work, of which they
arc composed, filled in with light Ijlue and green, after the usual German manner of the I2tli
century. The drawing of the altogether conventional foliage is good throughout the whole work,
which is ascribed by Sir Frederic Madden to "about the year 1190."

I2th CENTURY (PI. 29). — These specimens are taken from a manuscript in the Royal
Liljrary of the British Museum, under the mark i C. VII., containing ^the books of Joshua, Judges,
and Ruth, in the Vulgate version, with St. Jerome's prologues, and attributed l^y Sir Frederic
Madden to the middle of the 12th century. Such examples arc certainly preferable models in point
of lone to those afforded l)y the preceding Plate ; and we may look with much satisfaction upon
this manuscript, since it demonstrates how free and graceful a style of ornament may 1)e associated,
with strict archaeological propriety, with the cuml)rous 1>ut well-balanced forms of contemporary
Norman architecture.

I2th CENTURY (PI. 30). — Mr. Henry Shaw, in his beautiful work on illuminated manuscripts,
has devoted no less than eight plates, giving an entire alphal^et of initial letters, to the illustration
of the remarkable MS. which is well known as the Harleian, No, 2,800, and which has furnished
the material for the Plate under notice, as well as for our PI. 28 of the same century. Sir Frederic
Madden considers the MS. to be "written in the class of character which came into use at the
close of the 12th century, and which formed the link between the round open letter of the preceding
century and a half, and the square or Gothic letter of a later period."

I2th CENTURY (PI. 31). — It is for form rather than colour that these cleverly-designed
borders can be safely looked upon as models. They suffice, however, to show the flexibility of the

94 THE ART OF ILLUMINATING.

florid style of foliation which was the immediate precursor of the beautiful style of ornament which
we generally recognize in this country as Early English. The manuscript from which these patterns
have been chosen is in the Harleian collection, No. 3,045.

1 2th CENTURY (PI, 32) is from the same source as PI. 29 in this century. It is interesting to
compare Figure i with the same letter of the 9th century in the Bible of Charles the Bald ("Bible
de St. Denis "). The general outline of the two is identical, while in the later of the two, foHation
and isomorphic fonii take the place of knotwork with lacertine convolution and extremities. It is
impossible to doubt that the earlier specimen fonned the model for the later.

12th CENTURY (PI. 33). — These examples of initials and ornament of the same class, but
less agreeable in colour than those given in the last Plate, are derived from the British Museum,
Harleian collection. No. 3,045,— a very fine book, not a little creditable to the skill, imagination,
and patience of Hrabinus de Cruch.

I2th CENTURY (PI. 34), from the same MSS., supphes us with a grand specimen, in the
initial letter M, of the complications of form which, whether in their early or late styles, have
always proved grateful to the taste of the Germans.

I2th CENTURY (PI. 35).— No. i from Reg. 2 C 10; Nos. 2, 3, and 4, from Harl. 3,045.

I2th CENTURY (PI. 36).— All from Reg. 2 A 22.

13th CENTURY (PI. 37) gives us a legible, but rather too square alphabet, derived from a
copy of Gratian's Decretals (or Canons of the Church), in the Arundel collection (No. 490) of the
British Museum. This is unquestionably one of the earliest copies of this celebrated collection of
(a-atian's, which was compiled by him about the middle of the 12th century.

13th CENTURY (PI. 38).— In the last Plate may be noticed a deviation from the mode of
designing shown upon previous Plates, in the introduction of free strokes and flourishes of the pen,
altogether outside, and occasionally independent, of the ornamental letters. The present Plate,
derived from a set of Lives of the Saints in the British Museum (Bibl. Reg. 20 D 7), Avritten in
French, shows the practice in an advancing stage of eccentricity. It was never very popular in
England, but in Italy, France, and ultimately in Flanders, it became, as we shall hereafter have
occasion to see, exceedingly poi^iUar.

13th CENTURY (PI. 39).— In the noble "Image du Monde" (B. M. Sloane 2,435), f^oi"
which this Plate has been taken, we meet with none of the florid pen-work of the two preceding
Plates; all here is compatible with the stern severity of the satirist, "who holds, as 'twere, the
mirror Up to Nature. " In its sohd, opaque colouring, heightened with white, burnished gold
grounds, and strong black outline, this manuscript furnishes us with a beautiful example of the
style which became most popular in this country.

13th CENTURY (PI. 40).— All the sparkling details engraved on this Plate are taken from the
British Museum, viz., i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, and 9, from a copy of the Gospels (Add. MSS. 17,34!),
and Figure 6 from a Latin Bible (Bibl. Reg. i D i). In the former of these manuscripts, executed
probably in France in the latter part of the century, we may trace an evident incUnation to depart
from the conventional type of foliage common during the earlier part of the century, and a recurrence
to that more direct imitation of nature which has always characterized those schools of art in which
the professors have attained any marked amount of graphic dexterity.

13th CENTURY (PI. 41).— These specimens are all from the same manuscripts as the last ;
viz.. Figures i and 6 from Reg. i D i, and Figures 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, and 8 from a copy of the
Gospels (Add. MSS. 17,341).

13th CENTURY (PI. 42).— All from Reg. 2 C 9i

14th CENTURY (PI. 43) gives us two well-mjlrkcid alphabets, selected to give a clear idea
of tile Usual writing of this period.

14th CENTURY (IM. 44), is derived from som<i of' those noble fragments of French and

> : >

LIST OF THE PLATES. 95

Italian choral books of the 14th and 15th centuries, which are preserved in the South Kensington
Museum.

14th CENTURY (PI. 45).— In this Plate, Figure 5 is from the Lansdowne Collection (No.
463) ; Figures lo, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, and 22, from the Arundel Collection (No. 57); Figure 2 from
the Cottonian, Tib. B VIII. ; and Figures 3, 4, 7, and 15, from the Add. MSS. No. 12,009.
All the others are taken from a Missal (Add. MSS., No. 11,435), — all in the British Museum.

14th CENTURY (PI. 46).— All from the Chronicles of Thomas de Walsingham, A.D. 1392,
Bibl. Reg. 13 E IX.

14th CENTURY (PI. 47).— All from the above.

14th CENTURY (PI. 48).— From the South Kensington Museum.

14th CENTURY (PI. 49).— Figure i is from Reg. 15 D 2 ; Figure 2 from Reg. 16 B 4 ;
Figures 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18, from Harl. 2,899; Figure 4 from Reg. 2 AV. ;
Figiues 7 and 13 from Cott. Tib. B VIII.; and Figure 8 from Harl. 2,900.

14th CENTURY (Pis. 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, S9).-^These are all from cuttings
from Italian and other choral books, preserved in the South Kensington Museum, and offer an
exceedingly beautiful series of examples for modern illumination.

14th CENTURY (PI. 60).— British Museum. A Missal. Add. 11,435.

14th CENTURY (PI. 61).— British Museimi. Reg. i C. V. Biblia Latina.

14th CENTURY (PI. 62).— Spanish, from a Charter in the British Museum.

14th CENTURY (PI. 63).— Nos. 4, 5, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14, from Lans. 463 ; Nos. i, 2, and
3, from Cott. Lib. B VIII. ; and Nos. 7, 8, 9, and 15, from Add. 12,009. No. 6 is from a detached
fragment in the South Kensington Museum.

14th CENTURY (Pis. 64, 65, 66) give a series of bold initials from detached fraginents in
the South Kensington Museum.

15th CENTURY (Pis. 67, 68).— As above.

15th CENTURY (PI. 69).— British Museum. Burney, 198. " Titus Livitis. "

15th CENTURY (PI. 70).— British Museum. Add. 15,286.

15th CENTURY (PI. 71).— Italian. British Museum. Add. 15,286.

15th CENTURY (PI. 72).— From a Manuscript written in Spain. British Museiun. Add.
21,120.

15th CENTURY (PI. 73).— From Fust and Schoffer's Psalter. British Museum.

15th CENTURY (PI. 74).— From various Italian illiuninations in the British Museum, — the
large P and H from Burney, 175 ; and the large C and N from Harl. 3,293.

15th CENTURY (PI. 75).— From a Missal. British Museimi. Add. 15,260. This manu-
script belonged to the Duke of Sussex.

15th CENTURY (PI. 76).— From a Missal. Had. 2,900.

15th CENTURY (PI. 77).— All from Hari. 7,551.

15th CENTURY (PI. 78).— Principally from Reg. 14 D i.

15th CENTURY (PI. 79).— British Museum. Reg. 6, E IX. A Volume of Latin Poems.

15th CENTURY (PI. 80). -All from »* Hours of the Virgin." Harl. 2,936.

15th CENTURY (PI. 81).— British Museum. Harl. 2,900. Horce B. Maria; Virginis.

15th CENTURY (PL 82).— From the Meiitz Psalter.

15th CENTURY (PI. 83).— From the Spanish MS. Add. 21,120.

96' THE ART OF ILLUMINATING.

15th CENTURY (PI. 84).— Ng. i, from Plato, Harl. 3,481 ;.No. 4, from Livy, Harl. 3,694;
Nos. 2, 3, 5, and 6, from Harl, 2,593.

i6th CENTURY (PI. 85).— Nos. i, 3, 5, 6, 8, and lo, are from the Etymologicum Magnum,
printed by Calliergi ; Nos. 2, 4, 7, and 9, from the New Testament, printed by Robert Stephens.

i6th CENTU-RY (PI. 86).— Nos. i, 3, 5, 6, 8, and 10, are from the Etymologicmn, as above;
and Nos. 2, 7, and 9, from the New Testament, as above.

i6th CENTURY (PI 87).— Nos. i, 2, 3, 4, and 5, from Egerton, 1,147; Nos. 6 and 8, from
Reg. 2 D 40 ; No. 7 from Add. 1 7, 280.

i6th CENTURY (PI. 88).— Nos. i, 2, 3, 4, and 5, from Egerton, 1,147; Nos. 6 and 8,
Reg. 2 D 40 ; No. 7, Add. 1 7, 280.

i6th CENTURY (PI. 89).— From a German Bible in the British Museum, printed at Wit-
tenberg in 1584.

i6th CENTURY (PI. 90).— From the above.

16th CENTURY (PI. 91).— Nos. i, 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 16, 17, and 18, from Royal
2 D 40; Nos. 4, 5, and 6, from Add. 17,280; Nos. 13, 14, and 15, from Egerton, 1,147.

1 6th CENTURY (PI. 92). — From a Bible printed at Frankfort-am-Mayn in 1560.

i6th CENTURY (PI. 93).— From a Psalter. British Museum. Add. 15,426.

i6th CENTURY (PI. 94). -From a Missal. British Museum. Add. 18,855.

i6th CENTURY (PI. 95).— All from a Mibsal. British Museum. Add. 18,855.

M. D. W.

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(R8191I.)

University of California

APR 11 1977 iT'

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